The year was 52 BCE, and Gaul was ablaze with rebellion. After years of Roman expansion, the Celtic tribes had finally united under a charismatic leader named Vercingetorix. What followed would become one of history’s most epic sieges – a make-or-break moment that would determine the fate of Gaul.

The history of the battle

In 52 BCE, Gaul erupted in rebellion as Vercingetorix united the Celtic tribes against Roman rule. After a series of battles, he retreated with 80,000 men to the hilltop fortress of Alesia. Julius Caesar responded with a remarkable military feat: his 50,000 troops constructed two rings of fortifications—one to trap Vercingetorix inside, another to defend against an approaching relief army of 250,000 Gauls.

Reconstruction of Alesia defensive walls. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The siege culminated in a dramatic double battle, with Romans fighting Vercingetorix’s forces attempting to break out while simultaneously defending against the massive relief army. Caesar personally led the defense, and despite being vastly outnumbered, his forces prevailed. Vercingetorix surrendered, effectively ending Celtic independence in Gaul and securing Roman control north of the Alps.

Remains of objects belonging to the besieged Alesia: spearheads, arrows, javelins, sword scabbards. On display in the Visitors center of Alesia. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Alesia: The Search for Caesar’s Legendary Battleground

The Battle of Alesia in 52 BCE marked the final showdown between Julius Caesar and the Gallic leader Vercingetorix. But where exactly did this pivotal siege take place? This question sparked one of the most fascinating archaeological debates of the 19th century

The location of ancient Alesia had been debated for centuries. In 1855, architect Alphonse Delacroix proposed identifying it with Alaise, near Besançon. This sparked what became known as the “Alesia Question,” with multiple communities claiming to be the site of the historic battle. The current site’s discovery and excavation became intrinsically linked to Emperor Napoleon III’s personal and political ambitions.

In the late 1850s, Napoleon III embarked on an ambitious project to write a comprehensive “History of Julius Caesar.” Far from being merely an academic pursuit, this endeavor was deeply intertwined with his political ideology of “democratic Caesarism.” Napoleon III saw parallels between Caesar’s rise to power during the troubled times of the Roman Republic and his own ascension following the French Revolution’s aftermath.

The controversy reached its peak when the CTG (which stands for Commission of Gaul Topography), following Napoleon III’s direct orders, began systematic excavations at Alise-Sainte-Reine in Côte-d’Or in April 1861. The commission, convinced by the site’s topography, conducted rigorous archaeological investigations under the direction of Saulcy, Bertrand, and Creuly.

It was modern archaeology and numismatics that eventually tilted the scales decisively toward Alise-Sainte-Reine. Excavations there uncovered hundreds of Gallic and Roman coins dating precisely to the siege period – exactly what you’d expect to find on a battlefield from 52 BCE.

General map of Alesia. Green lines correspond to archaeological excavations in 1861-1865. Photo by Timetravelrome.

A Day at MuséoParc Alésia: Where Ancient History Comes Alive

Today, visitors to Alise-Sainte-Reine can explore an impressive MuséoParc that brings the siege to life. When you first arrive, you’ll be struck by the modern circular building that seems to rise organically from the Burgundian landscape. Designed by Bernard Tschumi Architects, the MuséoParc’s visitor center is a striking cylindrical building wrapped in a wooden herringbone facade, echoing the ancient Roman fortifications. Its green roof, planted with grass and trees, helps it blend seamlessly into the historic landscape when viewed from the hilltop.

MuséoParc’s visitor center. Photo by Michel Gybels.

MuséoParc’s visitor center -inside. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Throughout the year, the MuséoParc brings history to life through dynamic reenactments. Skilled performers in authentic legionary uniforms demonstrate Roman military tactics and siege weapons, while engaging spectators with educational commentary. These lively shows offer an immersive glimpse into the epic battle that shaped Gaul’s destiny, combining historical accuracy with accessible storytelling.

Roman camp at Alesia. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Part of the reenactment show. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Another reenactment scene. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Below are few highlights from the MuséoParc collection or archaeological finds:

The “Martialis stone” – a stele inscribed in the Gallic language. It commemorates the construction in Alesia of a building to a Gallic divinity — Ucuétis — by a certain Martialis, from whom it takes its name. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Capitoline Triad. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Female bust, 1st c. AD. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The Monumental Roman Alesia: A Tale Written in Stone

Recent archaeology at Alesia has revealed how this famous Gallic stronghold transformed into a sophisticated Roman town, with its grandest development occurring between the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius (14-54 CE). The heart of Roman Alesia tells a fascinating story of cultural transformation through its major public buildings.

Archaeological site of the gallo-roman Alesia. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The Roman theater has emerged as one of the site’s most intriguing structures. Archaeological work between 2004-2007 uncovered its complex evolution – beginning with modest timber structures in the Tiberian period. The Romans’ first attempt at a monumental stone theater was quickly abandoned, but they soon returned with a grander vision. The final theater, expanded southward and southeast, arose during Claudius’s reign. Its elaborate design included a colonnade adorned with Hellenistic-Roman style capitals, fragments of which still survive today.

Theater of Alesia – protected against erosion. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Visiting the Alesia theater today, you can still trace the massive curved walls, see evidence of the various building phases, and imagine the thousands of spectators who once gathered here for performances. It’s a powerful reminder of how ancient Alesia wasn’t just a battlefield – it was a living, breathing city where people gathered to enjoy entertainment just as we do today.

Theater walls. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The civil basilica: this immense Administrative building housed the coria, which was the municipal counsel of the time. It also served as a courthouse it and meeting space. It was richly decorated.

View on the Basilica. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Partial reconstruction of the basilica. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The Forum development marked an even more dramatic change in Alesia’s urban landscape. Around 40-50 CE, the Romans cleared away the old Gallic metalworking quarter to create this new civic center. The forum complex grew to include a grand paved plaza and a series of uniform rooms fronted by a northern portico. In the early 2nd century, the addition of a basilica completed the forum’s transformation into a proper Roman administrative center.

The place of the Forum on the right side from Basilica. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Religion remained central to life in Alesia, with two major sanctuaries dominating the townscape. The central sanctuary evolved from an earlier Gallic sacred site, undergoing significant renovations during the Augustan and Claudian periods. Its decorated friezes and statuary showcased Roman architectural sophistication while respecting the site’s sacred history.

Remains of the Temple. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Reconstruction of the Alesia Temple and its sacred area. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Perhaps most telling of Alesia’s unique character is the Monument of Ucuetis. Standing along the forum’s north side, this building honored the local craft deities Ucuetis and Bergusia. Built through local patronage, it symbolizes how Alesia maintained its famous metalworking traditions even as it embraced Roman urban ideals.

Monument of Ucuetis. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Ucuétis monument in Alesia – underground room in which hundreds of metal offerings were found. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Other monuments on the site include so-called « bronzesmith furnaces ». These enigmatic installations, numerous on the site, relate to a craft activity linked to fire. They have no equivalent outside Alesia.

Bronzesmith furnace of Alesia. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Visiting the Alesia site. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Sources:

• Recherches en cours sur le théâtre d’Alésia. Bilan préliminaire (2004-2008)
• Alesia « Le théâtre gallo-romain » Société des Sciences Historiques et Naturelles de Semur-en-Auxois
• Roland Martin et Pierre Varene, Le monument d’Ucuetis à Alesia. Revue archéologique du Centre de la France  Année 1974  13-3-4  pp. 336-337

Not far from the Belgian border, in the north of France, is the Gallo-Roman site and museum of Bavay – ancient Bagacum (from the Celtic word for ‘beech’). The city was probably founded at the end of the 1st century BC. Situated at a strategic crossroads, it grew to become one of the largest and most important Roman settlements in the Belgica province of Gaul. Excavations have uncovered substantial remains of the Roman city. These include a double forum, a variety of public and private buildings, and thermal baths, fed by aqueducts. An impressive array of archaeological finds from the city, including bronzes and a great deal of pottery, can be seen in the Ancient Forum of Bavay museum.

The People of the Nervii and the Roman Occupation

The people of the Nervii, of which Bagacum (Bavay) was the main town at the time of the Roman period, were not known before the occupation of Gaul by Julius Caesar from 58 to 51 BC. Moreover, the most important source of information about the Nervii is the account of the Gallic Wars by Caesar himself at the time of independence. Before the capture of Gaul, the Nervii occupied the region between the Scheldt, the Sambre and the Meuse and were known as barbarians who fought against the Roman legions at the battle of Sabis in 57 BC and at the attack on the camp of Quintus Cicero (brother of the famous orator) in 54 BC.

Northeast Gaul. Nervii. Circa 100-50 BC. Potin. Obverse: Central staff of pellets with four wavy lines on either side. Reverse: Celticized stag or horse standing left; ornaments around. Source: www.cngcoins.com Used by permission of CNG.

At that time the Nervii did not live in what would now be called cities, but in oppida or fortified settlements that were surrounded with walls made of earth and wood. About twenty kilometres south of Bavay lies Avesnelles-Flaumont which is considered to be the primitive capital of the Nervii before Bavay was founded.

Archaeological research on the Bavay site has shown that the place was inhabited almost certainly only after the occupation of Gaul by Caesar. The uprising of Bavay, after the occupation, was a result of the reorganization of the area by Emperor Augustus, between 16 and 13 BC. Gaul, conquered by Julius Caesar, was thus divided into three provinces. The region situated between the Seine and the Rhine became Gallia Belgica with Reims (Durocortorum) as its capital. This region was in turn divided into civitates, administrative descriptions with an overarching capital. Most of the civitas of the Nervii were located on present-day Belgian territory. Their territory was enclosed by the tribes of the Menapians to the north, by the Atrebates to the west, by the Ambians and Viromanduers to the south and by the Tongres to the east. The choice to make Bavay the capital of the Nervii was dictated by its strategic location. It was an important junction of roads leading to Trier via Maubeuge, to Reims via Avesnes, to Amiens via Vermand, to Boulogne via Arras or Cambrai and to Cologne via Maastricht and Tongeren. Many of today’s modern roads still follow the tracks of those old connecting roads.

Screen capture from the TimeTravelRome mobile app showing Bavay at the crossroad of important Roman Roads.

In the ancient world, the road that linked Boulogne to Cologne was particularly important and was built at the beginning of the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BC to 14 AD). This road enabled Roman troops to move quickly and easy towards the Rhine and the armies that were in Germania.

The Roman Bagacum

The beginning of the Roman city was very modest. On the site of the present museum there were houses built in perishable material, wells and storage places for manure. On the site of the present college there were artisanal workshops. However, an inscription in honour of Emperor Tiberius, who visited the city between the years 4 and 7 of our era, shows that Bavay was not an ordinary place. That inscription, which unfortunately was destroyed during the Second World War in 1944, read as follows: TI(BERIO) CAESARI AVGVSTI F(ILIO)/DIVI NEPOTI ADVENTV/EIVS SACRVM/CN LICINIVS C(AII) F(ILIUS) VOL(TINIA) NAVOS. Translated: Tiberius Caesar, son of Caesar Augustus, grandson of the divine Caesar, on the occasion of his visit/arrival, Cnaeus Licinius Navos, son of Caius Licinius, of the tribe of the Voltinia, has dedicated this monument to him.

Bavay (Bagacum) archaeological site. Photo by Michel Gybels. Used by the permission of the author.

There lived important Roman citizens and for more than three centuries Bagacum was the political capital of the Nervii. The names of some important magistrates are known: Tiberius Julius Tiberinus, duumvir or the most important magistrate within the city, Lucius Osidius, priest of Rome and of Augustus in Lyon and Marcus Pompey Victor, questor of the Roman citizens. This role of political capital explains at the same time the presence of a monumental centre in the city, the famous forum.

Bavay (Bagacum) archaeological site. Photo by Michel Gybels. Used by the permission of the author.

At the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 4th century AD, under the impetus of Emperor Diocletian (284-305), Bavay lost its status as the capital to Cambrai. Whether Bavay was affected by the invasions in the north of Gaul at the end of the 4th and 5th centuries is not clear. The ancient forum was nevertheless walled with an impressive wall whose interpretation remains delicate. During archaeological research, traces of fires were discovered in several places, which could indicate that the city was burnt. Apparently, however, the town was not abandoned because traces of numerous private houses were discovered on the site of the ancient forum and also the cryptoporticoes, which remained in use at least until the 5th century.

The Archaeological Survey

It was only in 1906 that archaeological research in Bavay got off to a good start thanks to the efforts of Maurice Hénault, archivist of the Valenciennes Library. This man was active on the site for about 30 years and in 1923 he even published the journal Pro Nervia in which an account of his research was published until 1934. In 1936, he was succeeded by Henri Biévelet, who started the major excavations on the site in 1942 and continued until 1976. This research uncovered most of the cryptoporticoes and the esplanade around the civil basilica. After 1976, the work was continued by Jean-Claude Carmelez, curator of the Bavay Archaeological Museum. And in 1988/1989, the Bavay site was then recognised as one of the thirty French national sites entitled to further research, which is done now by the Centre for Archaeological Studies of the University of Lille.

Bavay (Bagacum) archaeological site. Photo by Michel Gybels. Used by the permission of the author.

The best preserved remains consist of the impressive porticoes, the south-facing terrace with the remains of several shops, the cryptoporticoes, the central square of the forum, the remains of the civil basilica, the habitat area to the south of the forum and the rampart from the Late Imperial period. In total, the archaeological site covers more than 40 hectares, which is quite modest compared to those of Amiens (150 hectares) and Trier (more than 200 hectares).

Bavay (Bagacum) archaeological site. Photo by Michel Gybels. Used by the permission of the author.

In the recently new archaeological museum, numerous excavated objects have been brought together in nicely arranged showcases. Of particular interest here are the beautifully preserved bronze statuettes, which bear witness to an exceptionally high level of craftsmanship. Also on display are pottery, remnants of weapons, coins and all kinds of everyday utensils.

Bavay (Bagacum) Museum. Photo by Michel Gybels. Used by the permission of the author.

Bavay (Bagacum) Museum. Photo by Michel Gybels. Used by the permission of the author.

Bagacum on the TimeTravelRome mobile App:

Source of the featured image: By Jean-Pol GRANDMONT – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

“Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale her infinite variety. Other women cloy the appetites they feed: but she makes hungry where most she satisfies.”

– Antony and Cleopatra, Shakespeare

Meeting on the Kydnos

Cleopatra was not deeply involved in the civil wars that immediately followed the assassination of Caesar, though she stayed in steadfast support of her former lover – whether from loyalty or a shrewd evaluation of the likely winners. Both Cassius, one of Caesar’s assassins, and Dolabella, a leader of the party loyal to Caesar, petitioned Cleopatra for support. Although she committed four legions to Dolabella, they were captured by Cassius and later Serapion, the governor of Cyprus appointed by Cleopatra, defected to the conspirators, leaving Cleopatra’s loyalties in doubt.

Cleopatra Gate in Tarsus. By CeeGee – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

In order to reaffirm her loyalties, Cleopatra set sail for Greece with a large, well-provisioned fleet, intending to aid Octavian and Antony in the war against Brutus and Cassius. Unfortunately, she ran into heavy weather off the coast of Libya that badly damaged her fleet and she was forced to limp back to Alexandria, herself suffering from illness. By the time she had recovered and gotten her fleet refitted, Octavian and Antony had triumphed over the conspirators at the Battle of Philippi and the war was won.

Ancient road in Tarsus. By CeeGee – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Octavian and Antony effectively split administration of the Roman provinces between the two of them, with Octavian controlling the western half and Antony the eastern. Antony set up headquarters in Tarsus, and summoned Cleopatra to pay him audience there. The queen initially refused, but eventually agreed to visit, and sailed from Alexandria and up the Kydnos River on lavishly decorated ships.

First Impressions

Cleopatra had every intention of making an unforgettable impression as she sailed up the river “in a barge with gilded poop, its sails spread purple, its rowers urging it on with silver oars to the sound of the flute blended with pipes and lutes. She herself reclined beneath a canopy spangled with gold, adorned like Venus in a painting, while boys like Loves in paintings stood on either side and fanned her. Likewise also the fairest of her serving-maidens, attired like Nereïds and Graces, were stationed, some at the rudder-sweeps, and others at the reefing-ropes. Wondrous odours from countless incense-offerings diffused themselves along the river-banks.”

The Disembarkation of Cleopatra at Tarsus by Claude Lorrain (1642). Public Domain.

The inhabitants of Tarsus whispered that Venus had arrived to join in revels with Bacchus, and so it proved. Cleopatra and her courtiers entertained Antony with opulent luxury aboard their ships, which were adorned in a myriad of draping lights. The next day, Antony gave a feast in return, but it paled in comparison with Cleopatra’s preparations the night before. Nevertheless, Cleopatra made light of the discrepancy, and charmed Antony with her ready intelligence and easy manner. Plutarch gave perhaps the most complete, yet succinct description of her abilities:

“Her beauty, as we are told, was in itself not altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who saw her; but converse with her had an irresistible charm, and her presence, combined with the persuasiveness of her discourse and the character which was somehow diffused about her behaviour towards others, had something stimulating about it. There was sweetness also in the tones of her voice; and her tongue, like an instrument of many strings, she could readily turn to whatever language she pleased.”

A Luxurious Affair

Antony was suitably enthralled by the charismatic queen, and granted her requests to execute both her own sister, Arsinoe IV, and the traitorous governor of Cyprus. She left Tarsus with an invitation to Antony to join her in Egypt, which he swiftly did. There the two enjoyed a luxurious affair, even creating their own association which they called “The Inimitable Livers,” and every day they feasted one another in costly fashion. The affair also produced offspring, a twin brother and sister whom Cleopatra named Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Unlike Caesar, Antony openly acknowledged the two as his own.

Mark Antony & Cleopatra. Circa 36-34 BC. AR Tetradrachm. Obv: diademed bust of Cleopatra right, wearing earring, necklace, and embroidered dress. Rev: bare head of Antony right. Used by permission of www.cngcoins.com

Octavian had little difficulty turning Antony’s dalliances in Egypt to his advantage back in Italy, where hostility was rising between the two former allies. Antony’s brother and his wife, Fulvia, even staged a failed coup against Octavian, which came to be known as the Perusine War. Though Fulvia escaped death in the uprising, she died soon after while exiled in Greece. Her death temporarily reconciled Antony and Octavian, and Octavian gave Antony his sister, Octavia, in marriage. Yet Antony soon enough left his new wife with his children by Fulvia and returned to Cleopatra in the east.

Egypt, The Egyptian Museum, children of Cleopatra and Marc Antony, Cleopatra Selene, Caesarion, limestone. Source: www.historytoday.com

When the rift between the two men began to grow once again, Octavian easily swayed public opinion against Antony by pointing to the latter’s obsession with Egypt and betrayal of his good, loyal Roman wife. The situation finally exploded in early 32 B.C., when Cleopatra convinced Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce. Octavian used this as a justification to seize Antony’s will and read it aloud, revealing to the fury of the Romans present that Antony intended to make Alexandria the capital of the Roman Republic. Octavian officially declared war on Cleopatra, not on Antony, though he knew that the latter would join Cleopatra in the fight.

Defeat and Death

The war was relatively short-lived. Antony and Cleopatra had lost numerous allies, and though their ships outnumbered Octavian’s, their crews were far less experienced and skilled. They met Octavian’s fleet, under the command of Marcus Agrippa, for battle outside their headquarters at Actium, and eventually suffered a major defeat. Both Antony and Cleopatra escaped from Actium, fleeing back to Egypt where they landed at Paraitonion and drifted apart. Antony vainly hoped to rally allies to his cause, and Cleopatra planned an escape to India by sea, a journey known to the Ptolemaic kings for generations. Her hopes were dashed, however, when Malichus I, King of Nabatea, burned the ships she had staged for the escape.

Relief commemorating the Battle of Actium discovered in Avellino. Carrara marble, Tiberian period. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Antony and Cleopatra waited anxiously in Alexandria for the arrival of Octavian, who received the surrender of Antony’s fleet and cavalry in early August of 30 B.C. Cleopatra hid in her tomb and sent a message to Antony that she had committed suicide. In despair and grief, he stabbed himself in the stomach. A stomach wound does not kill quickly, however, and Antony was brought, badly wounded, to the tomb, where Cleopatra lifted him with ropes, smeared with blood and struggling against overwhelming pain, over the great barrier at the entrance of the tomb. He died in her arms.

Dying Antony brought to Cleopatra. Eugène-Ernest Hillemacher. Public Domain.

Cleopatra attempted to negotiate with Octavian, first diplomatically and then romantically, but Octavian rejected her advances. Finally, learning that she was to be moved to Rome and refusing to be led in a Roman triumph, Cleopatra took her own life. Famously, she is said to have died by allowing a venomous snake, an asp, to bite her. Octavian allowed Cleopatra and Antony to be buried together, but their tomb has yet to be found.

What to See Here Now?

Tarsus:

There are several significant remains of antiquity to be seen in Tarsus, though the state of preservation varies with most in need of restoration and preservation. One of the most striking survivors from antiquity is the so-called “Cleopatra Gate” in the west of the city; according to legend this great arched gateway is the entrance into the city which was taken by Antony and Cleopatra. There is also an impressive bridge, dating to the Justinianic period (early 6th century), when the city was restored. It spans over the Berdan River and remains in good condition. The museums in Tarsus are rich in archaeological finds.

Tarsus, Cilicia, Turkey. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Paraitonion:

Paraitonion is a large archeological area, but perhaps the most well-known historical attraction is the Temple of Ramesses II. Also of note are the ruins of a Ptolemaic Era anchorage site in the harbor, and an early Coptic chapel of the Roman Period, perhaps from the 1st century, with several inscribed caves.

Abu Simbel Temples of Ramesses II and Nefertari. Taken by Than217, Public Domain.

Sources: Sources: Plutarch, Life of Caesar; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Appian, Civil Wars; Caesar, African Wars; Suetonius, Life of Caesar

Header image: The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra. By Lawrence Alma-Tadema – Sotheby's New York, 05 Mai 2011, lot 65, Public Domain.

…“So Cleopatra, taking only Apollodorus the Sicilian from among her friends, embarked in a little skiff and landed at the palace when it was already getting dark; and as it was impossible to escape notice otherwise, she stretched herself at full length inside a bed-sack, while Apollodorus tied the bed-sack up with a cord and carried it indoors to Caesar. It was by this device of Cleopatra’s, it is said, that Caesar was first captivated, for she showed herself to be a bold coquette.”

Cleopatra (1888). By John William Waterhouse (1849-1917). Public Domain.

Cleopatra remains somewhat enigmatic, despite her many appearances in ancient histories. Some historians describe her as a ravishing beauty. Others claim that she was attractive, yet not stunningly gorgeous; rather it was her confidence, intelligence, and personality that captivated the Roman men who visited Egypt. Cleopatra was fluent in at least nine languages, giving her the advantage of entertaining ambassadors and communicating with her people without using an interpreter. She was the only Pharaoh of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to learn the native Egyptian language. Her charismatic wit and charm impressed all who met her, and particularly attracted the attention of the Romans, whose usual ideal for woman was something altogether more quiet and demure.

Siege of Alexandria

Thanks to her dramatic appearance before Caesar, the Roman general agreed to take up her cause, and initially worked to reconcile her with her brother and husband, Ptolemy. It seemed successful, but the general Achillas escaped to his camp and kicked off a war with Caesar, besieging Caesar and Cleopatra, who remained in the palace of Alexandria with Ptolemy held as captive. Cleopatra’s younger sister, Arsinoe, soon arranged for the assassination of Achillas and took command of the Egyptian forces.

Outnumbered and surrounded in the city, the war was a difficult one for Cleopatra, Caesar, and his men. Arsinoe ordered the water canals filled with seawater, causing panic among Caesar’s soldiers. However, they managed to dig new wells that directly accessed fresh water and also sent ships to search for fresh water along the coast. Arsinoe next tried to cut Caesar off from his fleet, but he responded with a fire that caused significant damage to the great Library of Alexandria. Unfortunately for Arsinoe, she was betrayed by the Egyptian officers, who had little interest in being commanded by a woman. They negotiated an exchange, sending Arsinoe as a captive to Caesar and thereby securing Ptolemy’s release.

A 19th century illustration of the burning of the Library of Alexandria. Source: www.thedailybeast.com

Ptolemy maintained the siege, but eventually Mithridates of Pergamon came to the aid of the besieged Caesar and broke his forces out of the city. They met with Ptolemy’s opposing army in the Nile Delta in February of 47 B.C. The battle was fierce and hard fought, with Caesar’s forces attacking their enemy’s fortified camp. Finally, however, a contingent of the Romans managed to break through and attack Ptolemy’s forces from the rear, and the frightened army broke and scattered.

Caesar and Cleopatra

With her husband neutralized, Cleopatra emerged as the sole ruler, but she married her younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, to maintain the illusion of a male ruler. The marriage was nothing more than political theatre, and Cleopatra spent her days and nights instead with Caesar. Already a notorious womanizer in Rome, Caesar delayed in Egypt until April to enjoy his dalliance with Cleopatra, an uncharacteristic move for the ambitious general who almost never paused his military and political operations.  Yet Caesar remained captivated by Cleopatra. Suetonius claims that he joined her for a cruise down the Nile on a luxury barge, viewing the monuments and buildings of Egyptian history. She also almost certainly showed him around the Mouseion of Alexandria, and introduced him to the new style of dating which Caesar would adopt as the Julian calendar, a direct antecedent to the calendar we still use today.

Julius Caesar. August 43 BC. AR Denarius. Rome mint. Laureate head right within within pelleted border / Venus Genetrix as Felicitas holding caduceus and long scepter. www.cngcoins.com Used by permission of CNG.

When he finally left Egypt for Syria, Cleopatra was heavily pregnant, and shortly after his departure, gave birth to a boy that she named Caesarion.  Caesar remained publically silent regarding the child, neither claiming him as his own nor denying his parentage, but Cleopatra loudly declared Caesar as the father, and few doubted her. After his return to Rome, Caesar invited Cleopatra to join him in the capital city, an invitation which she gladly accepted, staying in Caesar’s villa in the Horti Caesaris, the Gardens of Caesar, outside the city walls. These would later be purchased by Sallust, and became known as the Gardens of Sullust.

Gardens of Sallust. Photo by Lalupa, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Queen of Egypt

Cleopatra was largely despised by the Romans, seen as a foreign tramp and a potential threat. Caesar did not help this distaste by commissioning a golden statue, modeled on Cleopatra, which he placed in the Temple of Venus Genetrix. Despite her unpopularity, her presence and poise remained as striking as always, and soon Roman women were imitating her hairstyle and fashions. Cleopatra and Caesarion were still in Rome when, on March 15^th of 44 B.C., a group of conspirators murdered Caesar during a meeting of the Senate.

Temple of Venus Genitrix, Forum Iulium, Rome. By Jebulon – Own work, CC0.

Cleopatra bravely remained in Rome until the reading of the will, hoping that Caesar would name Caesarion as his son. However, Caesar’s will declared his nephew, Octavius, as his sole heir. Cleopatra fled the volatile situation in Rome and returned to Egypt. Once there, she poisoned her younger brother and named her young son Caesarion as her co-ruler. She had lost Caesar and the power of his legions, but she had gained the unchallenged sole rule of Egypt.

To be continued….

The Gardens of Sallust: What to See Here?

The splendid parkland that sprawled across the valley between the Pincian Hill and Esquiline hills was first acquired by Julius Caesar in the first century BC. After the dictator’s death, the governor of Africa Nova and famous historian Sallust (author of the Catilinarian Conspiracy and Jugurthine War) purchased the property—thus giving it its enduring name—and left it to his great-nephew when he himself died in 35 BC.

Horti Sallustiani, Aula Adrianea. By Lalupa – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

In 20 AD, the gardens passed into the hands of the Emperor Tiberius and where henceforth kept and maintained by various successive Roman emperors as part of the Imperial property. Vespasian, the first of the Flavian emperors, certainly enjoyed staying there; presumably the fact it was in these very gardens that his army had fought the decisive battle that won him control of the city did nothing to keep him up at night. Nerva, the first of the following dynasty, loved them too: the gardens being the spot where he shuffled off his mortal coil in 98 AD.

View of the interior of the ruins of the Temple of Venus in the Gardens of Sallust, Rome, with four figures Etching. Engraving by Giovanni Battista Piranesi, from Varie vedute di Roma antica e moderna (Various Views of Ancient and Modern Rome), published by Fausto Amidei, 1748. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

The Gardens of Sallust were expanded under Hadrian and Aurelian; the latter, according to the Historia Augusta, adding a mile-long portico along which he would regularly ride his horse. The gardens’ beauty couldn’t save it from destruction in the fifth century however, and the gardens and its monuments were finally sacked by Alaric and his Goths in 410 after their entry into the city through the gardens’ gates.

Time has not been kind to the Gardens of Sallust. Rome’s expansion in 1871, as the capital of the Republic of Italy, saw much of the valley between the Pincio and Quirinal filled in, burying whatever had survived centuries of sackings, fires, earthquakes and destructive construction (or reconstruction) projects. Nothing survives of Aurelian’s mile long portico, nor can we find any remains of the sepulchre erected to house the bodies of two Augustan giants who apparently measured a staggering 10’3.

Sallust Gardens in Rome. By Carlo Dani – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

There are some hints of the gardens’ former glory however. The well-preserved remains of a three-storey pavilion, buried some 14 metres underground, can be seen in the centre of the modern Piazza Sallustio. A Hadrianic cistern is situated at the corner of Via San Nicola da Tolentino and Via Bissolati. And a cryptoporticus that probably dates from the third century AD is still visible from the garage of the nearby United States Embassy.

Though the Gardens of Sallust have fared badly, certain treasures recovered from them still survive spread out across the city. The obelisk that now stands at the top of the Spanish Steps was first erected in the Gardens of Sallust sometime after the death of Augustus. Likewise, the statue of the Dying Gaul now housed in the Capitoline Museums was taken from the gardens and dates from the time of Julius Caesar.

Dying Gaul – Palazzo Nuovo – Musei Capitolini, Rome. Copy after Epigonos, CC BY 2.0.

Silenus holding the child Dionysos. Marble, Roman copy of the 1st–2nd century CE after a Greek original of the late 4th century BC. Now in Louvre, France. From the Horti Sallustiani in Rome. Photo by Jastrow, Public Domain.

Gardens of Sallust on Timetravelrome App:

Timetravelrome offers an extensive coverage of monuments in Rome. 195 ancient sites of Rome are precisely placed on the map, illustrated and described in detail.

Sources: Plutarch, Life of Caesar; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Appian, Civil Wars; Caesar, African Wars; Suetonius, Life of Caesar

Featured image: “Caesar giving Cleopatra the Throne of Egypt” by Pietro da Cortona. Public Domain.

Yet by the time of Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic Empire was not what it had been. Generations of kings living in luxury had weakened the ambitious of the kings and queens, family infighting and dynastic squabbles frequent, and the empire almost bankrupt. Into this situation stepped Cleopatra, a ruler more reflective of the first Ptolemaic kings – intelligent, quick, opportunistic, and ruthless when necessary – a product of the philosophic haven that was ancient Alexandria. Yet from the beginning of her reign, she was playing with a deck stacked against her.

Portrait coin of Cleopatra VII Thea Neotera. 51-30 BC. Æ Diobol – 80 Drachmai. Alexandreia mint. Used by permisson of CNG. www.cngcoins.com.

Ineffective King in a Failing Kingdom

Cleopatra was the second daughter of Ptolemy XII of Egypt. Her father had become king after a palace coup. As the illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX, he was the closest male heir. Yet by that time Egypt was already practically a weak client kingdom of Rome. Ptolemy XII did nothing to strengthen his kingdom. In fact, he was far more interested in feasting and music than in business or politics. His love of flute playing in festivals earned him the disdainful moniker Auletes, which meant flute player. Fully aware of his lack of clout as a ruler, Auletes sought desperately for the support of Rome to maintain his power.

Ptolemy XII, called “Auletes” (the “Flute Player”), 1st century BC, discovered in Egypt, Louvre Museum. By Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0.

In 63 B.C., he sent a large monetary gift along with an invitation to Pompey. Although Pompey accepted the money, he declined to visit, and Auletes followed up by traveling to Rome personally to present large sums to both Pompey and Caesar, and was acknowledged as a formal ally and friend of Rome. However, his massive gifts bankrupted Egypt, and he imposed heavy taxes on the citizens to compensate. Unrest grew until it finally exploded into open rebellion. The Egyptian people deposed Auletes and placed his eldest daughter, Berenice, on the throne.

Auletes fled to Rome along with a teenaged Cleopatra. After some initial struggles with Roman Senators opposing his bid, he finally bribed the Roman general Aulus Gabinus to invade Egypt in 55 B.C. Upon taking the palace, Auletes immediately executed his daughter Berenice and her supporters, and reigned for the next three years under considerable influence from Rome.

Challenging Circumstances for the New Queen

Yet Auletes was slowly weakening, and early in 52 B.C., he became so ill that he named Cleopatra co-regent. Having grown up in the court of her father in Alexandria, Cleopatra had been educated by some of the top philosophers of the age. In her later years, she was said to have frequently gone to the Museum of Alexandria to converse with the scholars there, and her visits likely began even earlier. By the time she became co-regent at sixteen years old she was already an intelligent, polished, and diplomatic stateswoman. She had traveled the world and experienced Rome firsthand. Her first year of co-rule gave her further administrative experience. When her father died in 51 B.C., his will named Cleopatra and her ten year old brother, Ptolemy XIII, as co-rulers. In strong Ptolemaic tradition, Cleopatra promptly married her little brother, but their cooperation was short-lived.

Sphinxes at the Serapeum of Alexandria. By Institute for the Study of the Ancient World – CC BY 2.0.

They inherited a kingdom wracked with problems. Famine devastated the land, and the soldiers left by Gabinius were becoming outlaws. On top of everything, they now owed the Roman Republic the debts incurred by their father, totaling some 17.5 million drachmas. Calculating an exact exchange with modern currency is difficult, but one drachma was about a days’ worth of wages for a skilled laborer. The full debt amounted to something like 210 billion US dollars or 178 billion Euros today.  Soon, conflict arose between the two siblings, exacerbated by the court advisors, who rightly expected they could exercise more power over the younger Ptolemy than his smart, headstrong, older sister. Eventually Cleopatra was forced to flee to Syria with her younger sister, Arsinoe. There they planned to raise an army to reclaim the throne for Cleopatra.

An Opportunity Seized

Yet at the same time, civil strife in Rome was soon to provide Cleopatra with the opportunity that she needed. Tensions between Pompey and Caesar had erupted into civil war, and eventually Pompey’s forces suffered a crushing defeat at Pharsalus. Pompey himself fled to Egypt, expecting a warm welcome on the strength of his former allegiance with Auletes. Yet the young Ptolemy thought it better to play to the winning side. He instructed his men to meet Pompey’s ships and welcome him, inviting him to come to shore in a small skiff to meet with the king. While still halfway between the ships and the shore, the men in the skiff turned on Pompey and stabbed him to death.

Portrait coin (denarius) of Pompey the Great. Struck by Sextus Pompey. 37/6 BC, Sicily. Used by permisson of CNG. www.cngcoins.com.

When Caesar arrived in Egypt in pursuit and came to the court of Ptolemy, the officials proudly offered him Pompey’s head, eagerly expecting high honors and rewards – but they fundamentally misunderstood Caesar. He turned in horror from the head and refused to even look at it. He did accept the signet ring of Pompey, also presented to him, but far from reveling in his triumph, he wept bitterly over it, and ordered his soldiers to execute the murderers. With her brother thus already on shaky ground with Caesar, Cleopatra saw her chance. Determined to meet with him, she had her friend Apollodorus carry her, concealed within a sack, into Caesar’s quarters, where she presented herself to the famous Roman to plead for his support.

Cleopatra and Caesar by Jean-Léon Gérôme –  Public Domain.

Continued here…

Sources: Plutarch, Life of Caesar; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Appian, Civil Wars; Strabo, Geography

Alexandria: What to See Here Now ?

Though the capital of Hellenistic Egypt and equally crucial to Rome’s history, modern Alexandria offers relatively little in the way of ancient Roman artifacts compared to its importance. However, there are specific sites around the modern city with ruins worth visiting.

The Chatby (or Shatby) Necropolis in Alexandria is said to be the oldest Hellenistic necropolis in the city, with Egyptian, Hellenistic Greek and Roman influences. Much of the necropolis is visible at ground level, and many artefacts from the site are preserved at the Alexandria National Museum nearby.

Chatby necropolis in Alexandria. By Nikola Smolenski – Own work. CC BY-SA 3.0.

The necropolis in Alexandria now referred to as the Kom El Shoqafa Catacombs included a mixture of Roman, Greek and Egyptian features as well as the bones of Christians martyred during the reign of the emperor Caracalla. Much of the necropolis remains intact underground, including decorations and a circular staircase that was used to carry the deceased below the surface.

Exhibition area, Kom el-Shuqafa, Alexandria, Egypt. By Roland Unger, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Entrance of the principal tomb chamber. By Clemens Schmillen – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Kom el-Dikka, a suburb of Alexandria, is the site of a number of structures dating back to the Roman period including a small theatre, a substantial villa, and a modest bath complex. The theatre is fairly intact, with a number of columns and much of the stone seating still in place.

Roman Amphitheater of Alexandria. By ASaber91 – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

The Serapeum of Alexandria was an important Greek temple originally constructed in the third century B.C. Relatively little remains visible above ground, but surviving catacombs below the temple may have been used for worship of Serapis. A marble statue of Mithras was also recovered from the site. Pompey’s Pillar, a huge free-standing monolithic triumphal column nearby, was erected on the site in AD 297 by the Emperor to commemorate the successful suppression of an Alexandrian revolt.

The remains of the ancient site of the Temple complex of Sarapis at Alexandria. By Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. CC BY 2.0.

Serapeum of Alexandria. So called “Pompey’s Pillar”. By Hatem Moushir – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,

Alexandria on TimeTravelRome App:

Source of the features image: “Cleopatra on the Terraces of Philae” by Frederick Arthur Bridgman – Public Domain.

An Unusual Prisoner

In 75 B.C., at the age of twenty-five, Julius Caesar was working toward political success. He gained military experience serving in Asia and Cilicia, earning a reputation for bravery at the Siege of Mytilene. After the engagement, he was awarded a Civic Crown, the second highest honor a citizen could earn. With a solid military reputation, the next step for Caesar was to distinguish himself politically. This meant giving speeches in law cases, and so he decided to travel to Rhodes to further study oration. While on the way to Rhodes, Cilician pirates captured his ship. They demanded that he pay a ransom of twenty talents to secure his freedom. In return, Caesar laughed at them, telling them they had no idea who they had captured. He insisted that they must accept no less than fifty talents.

The pirates readily agreed, and they sent his friends away to gather the payment. Caesar remained in the custody of the pirates, with only two of his servants and one friend. Not willing to delay his study, he used his time with the pirates to practice writing speeches and poems. He barely behaved like a captive. He would recite his works to his captors, berate them as uninformed savages when they did not like one of his pieces, and laughingly say that he would crucify them all. This delighted the pirates, who found his youthful brashness amusing.  They allowed him to wander among their boats and on their island. He began to behave more like one of their leaders than a prisoner. He joined them for games and exercises, and would send haughty messages demanding they be quiet when he was preparing to sleep.

Escape to Miletus

After thirty-eight days, his friends returned with the ransom, and the pirates freed Caesar. They ought to have listened more seriously to his threats. Caesar sailed immediately to Miletus, raised a fleet, despite being a private citizen, and returned to their island. His Miletan fleet captured the entire band, and imprisoned them at Pergamon. When he appealed to Marcus Junius, the governor of Asia, to execute them, Junius hesitated. The governor was thinking of the money that could be made from selling them as slaves. Caesar felt, however, that he must stand by his word. He had sworn to crucify the pirates, and so he would. He returned to Pergamon, and convinced the Roman legionaries there that Junius had given the order. In a small act of mercy, Caesar ordered their throats slit for a quick death. He then continued on to Rhodes to complete his study with Apollonius.

Miletus remained an important city for many centuries to come. Christian texts mention it as the meeting place in 57 A.D. of Paul and elders of the Church of Ephesus. Under the Byzantine Empire, the city became an archbishopric. The archaeological site displays the city’s long history, with town walls and foundations from the Hellenistic Era to the Roman theatre which lies adjacent to a Byzantine Castle.

What to see in Miletus today:

There are extensive remains of antiquity at Miletus. The archaeological park should feature prominently on the list of those in the area with an interest in the ancient world. Some of the most notable remains date to the 2nd century A.D. and stem from the beneficence of imperial patronage. There is a rather grandiose Nymphaeum, the frontispiece of which is modelled on the scaenae frons of a theatre, which dates to the reign of Trajan. To Faustina, wife of Marcus Aurelius, is attributed the once exquisite baths in the city, as well as the large theatre which could seat some 15,000 spectators.

The oldest sanctuary in the city is dedicated to Athena, whilst there is also a Serapeum, dating to the late imperial era (possibly the reign of Aurelian in the latter 2nd century A.D.). One can also see the remains of urban life all over the site, including a number of Markets and a Bouleterion (council building).

Miletus on Timetravelrome app:

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

Author: written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen.

Sources: Plutarch, Life of Caesar; Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars: Julius Caesar

Header Photo: The theater of Miletus by Robin & Bazylek licensed under CC BY 2.0