“Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale her infinite variety. Other women cloy the appetites they feed: but she makes hungry where most she satisfies.”

– Antony and Cleopatra, Shakespeare

Meeting on the Kydnos

Cleopatra was not deeply involved in the civil wars that immediately followed the assassination of Caesar, though she stayed in steadfast support of her former lover – whether from loyalty or a shrewd evaluation of the likely winners. Both Cassius, one of Caesar’s assassins, and Dolabella, a leader of the party loyal to Caesar, petitioned Cleopatra for support. Although she committed four legions to Dolabella, they were captured by Cassius and later Serapion, the governor of Cyprus appointed by Cleopatra, defected to the conspirators, leaving Cleopatra’s loyalties in doubt.

Cleopatra Gate in Tarsus. By CeeGee – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

In order to reaffirm her loyalties, Cleopatra set sail for Greece with a large, well-provisioned fleet, intending to aid Octavian and Antony in the war against Brutus and Cassius. Unfortunately, she ran into heavy weather off the coast of Libya that badly damaged her fleet and she was forced to limp back to Alexandria, herself suffering from illness. By the time she had recovered and gotten her fleet refitted, Octavian and Antony had triumphed over the conspirators at the Battle of Philippi and the war was won.

Ancient road in Tarsus. By CeeGee – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Octavian and Antony effectively split administration of the Roman provinces between the two of them, with Octavian controlling the western half and Antony the eastern. Antony set up headquarters in Tarsus, and summoned Cleopatra to pay him audience there. The queen initially refused, but eventually agreed to visit, and sailed from Alexandria and up the Kydnos River on lavishly decorated ships.

First Impressions

Cleopatra had every intention of making an unforgettable impression as she sailed up the river “in a barge with gilded poop, its sails spread purple, its rowers urging it on with silver oars to the sound of the flute blended with pipes and lutes. She herself reclined beneath a canopy spangled with gold, adorned like Venus in a painting, while boys like Loves in paintings stood on either side and fanned her. Likewise also the fairest of her serving-maidens, attired like Nereïds and Graces, were stationed, some at the rudder-sweeps, and others at the reefing-ropes. Wondrous odours from countless incense-offerings diffused themselves along the river-banks.”

The Disembarkation of Cleopatra at Tarsus by Claude Lorrain (1642). Public Domain.

The inhabitants of Tarsus whispered that Venus had arrived to join in revels with Bacchus, and so it proved. Cleopatra and her courtiers entertained Antony with opulent luxury aboard their ships, which were adorned in a myriad of draping lights. The next day, Antony gave a feast in return, but it paled in comparison with Cleopatra’s preparations the night before. Nevertheless, Cleopatra made light of the discrepancy, and charmed Antony with her ready intelligence and easy manner. Plutarch gave perhaps the most complete, yet succinct description of her abilities:

“Her beauty, as we are told, was in itself not altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who saw her; but converse with her had an irresistible charm, and her presence, combined with the persuasiveness of her discourse and the character which was somehow diffused about her behaviour towards others, had something stimulating about it. There was sweetness also in the tones of her voice; and her tongue, like an instrument of many strings, she could readily turn to whatever language she pleased.”

A Luxurious Affair

Antony was suitably enthralled by the charismatic queen, and granted her requests to execute both her own sister, Arsinoe IV, and the traitorous governor of Cyprus. She left Tarsus with an invitation to Antony to join her in Egypt, which he swiftly did. There the two enjoyed a luxurious affair, even creating their own association which they called “The Inimitable Livers,” and every day they feasted one another in costly fashion. The affair also produced offspring, a twin brother and sister whom Cleopatra named Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Unlike Caesar, Antony openly acknowledged the two as his own.

Mark Antony & Cleopatra. Circa 36-34 BC. AR Tetradrachm. Obv: diademed bust of Cleopatra right, wearing earring, necklace, and embroidered dress. Rev: bare head of Antony right. Used by permission of www.cngcoins.com

Octavian had little difficulty turning Antony’s dalliances in Egypt to his advantage back in Italy, where hostility was rising between the two former allies. Antony’s brother and his wife, Fulvia, even staged a failed coup against Octavian, which came to be known as the Perusine War. Though Fulvia escaped death in the uprising, she died soon after while exiled in Greece. Her death temporarily reconciled Antony and Octavian, and Octavian gave Antony his sister, Octavia, in marriage. Yet Antony soon enough left his new wife with his children by Fulvia and returned to Cleopatra in the east.

Egypt, The Egyptian Museum, children of Cleopatra and Marc Antony, Cleopatra Selene, Caesarion, limestone. Source: www.historytoday.com

When the rift between the two men began to grow once again, Octavian easily swayed public opinion against Antony by pointing to the latter’s obsession with Egypt and betrayal of his good, loyal Roman wife. The situation finally exploded in early 32 B.C., when Cleopatra convinced Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce. Octavian used this as a justification to seize Antony’s will and read it aloud, revealing to the fury of the Romans present that Antony intended to make Alexandria the capital of the Roman Republic. Octavian officially declared war on Cleopatra, not on Antony, though he knew that the latter would join Cleopatra in the fight.

Defeat and Death

The war was relatively short-lived. Antony and Cleopatra had lost numerous allies, and though their ships outnumbered Octavian’s, their crews were far less experienced and skilled. They met Octavian’s fleet, under the command of Marcus Agrippa, for battle outside their headquarters at Actium, and eventually suffered a major defeat. Both Antony and Cleopatra escaped from Actium, fleeing back to Egypt where they landed at Paraitonion and drifted apart. Antony vainly hoped to rally allies to his cause, and Cleopatra planned an escape to India by sea, a journey known to the Ptolemaic kings for generations. Her hopes were dashed, however, when Malichus I, King of Nabatea, burned the ships she had staged for the escape.

Relief commemorating the Battle of Actium discovered in Avellino. Carrara marble, Tiberian period. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Antony and Cleopatra waited anxiously in Alexandria for the arrival of Octavian, who received the surrender of Antony’s fleet and cavalry in early August of 30 B.C. Cleopatra hid in her tomb and sent a message to Antony that she had committed suicide. In despair and grief, he stabbed himself in the stomach. A stomach wound does not kill quickly, however, and Antony was brought, badly wounded, to the tomb, where Cleopatra lifted him with ropes, smeared with blood and struggling against overwhelming pain, over the great barrier at the entrance of the tomb. He died in her arms.

Dying Antony brought to Cleopatra. Eugène-Ernest Hillemacher. Public Domain.

Cleopatra attempted to negotiate with Octavian, first diplomatically and then romantically, but Octavian rejected her advances. Finally, learning that she was to be moved to Rome and refusing to be led in a Roman triumph, Cleopatra took her own life. Famously, she is said to have died by allowing a venomous snake, an asp, to bite her. Octavian allowed Cleopatra and Antony to be buried together, but their tomb has yet to be found.

What to See Here Now?

Tarsus:

There are several significant remains of antiquity to be seen in Tarsus, though the state of preservation varies with most in need of restoration and preservation. One of the most striking survivors from antiquity is the so-called “Cleopatra Gate” in the west of the city; according to legend this great arched gateway is the entrance into the city which was taken by Antony and Cleopatra. There is also an impressive bridge, dating to the Justinianic period (early 6th century), when the city was restored. It spans over the Berdan River and remains in good condition. The museums in Tarsus are rich in archaeological finds.

Tarsus, Cilicia, Turkey. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Paraitonion:

Paraitonion is a large archeological area, but perhaps the most well-known historical attraction is the Temple of Ramesses II. Also of note are the ruins of a Ptolemaic Era anchorage site in the harbor, and an early Coptic chapel of the Roman Period, perhaps from the 1st century, with several inscribed caves.

Abu Simbel Temples of Ramesses II and Nefertari. Taken by Than217, Public Domain.

Sources: Sources: Plutarch, Life of Caesar; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Appian, Civil Wars; Caesar, African Wars; Suetonius, Life of Caesar

Header image: The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra. By Lawrence Alma-Tadema – Sotheby's New York, 05 Mai 2011, lot 65, Public Domain.

…“So Cleopatra, taking only Apollodorus the Sicilian from among her friends, embarked in a little skiff and landed at the palace when it was already getting dark; and as it was impossible to escape notice otherwise, she stretched herself at full length inside a bed-sack, while Apollodorus tied the bed-sack up with a cord and carried it indoors to Caesar. It was by this device of Cleopatra’s, it is said, that Caesar was first captivated, for she showed herself to be a bold coquette.”

Cleopatra (1888). By John William Waterhouse (1849-1917). Public Domain.

Cleopatra remains somewhat enigmatic, despite her many appearances in ancient histories. Some historians describe her as a ravishing beauty. Others claim that she was attractive, yet not stunningly gorgeous; rather it was her confidence, intelligence, and personality that captivated the Roman men who visited Egypt. Cleopatra was fluent in at least nine languages, giving her the advantage of entertaining ambassadors and communicating with her people without using an interpreter. She was the only Pharaoh of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to learn the native Egyptian language. Her charismatic wit and charm impressed all who met her, and particularly attracted the attention of the Romans, whose usual ideal for woman was something altogether more quiet and demure.

Siege of Alexandria

Thanks to her dramatic appearance before Caesar, the Roman general agreed to take up her cause, and initially worked to reconcile her with her brother and husband, Ptolemy. It seemed successful, but the general Achillas escaped to his camp and kicked off a war with Caesar, besieging Caesar and Cleopatra, who remained in the palace of Alexandria with Ptolemy held as captive. Cleopatra’s younger sister, Arsinoe, soon arranged for the assassination of Achillas and took command of the Egyptian forces.

Outnumbered and surrounded in the city, the war was a difficult one for Cleopatra, Caesar, and his men. Arsinoe ordered the water canals filled with seawater, causing panic among Caesar’s soldiers. However, they managed to dig new wells that directly accessed fresh water and also sent ships to search for fresh water along the coast. Arsinoe next tried to cut Caesar off from his fleet, but he responded with a fire that caused significant damage to the great Library of Alexandria. Unfortunately for Arsinoe, she was betrayed by the Egyptian officers, who had little interest in being commanded by a woman. They negotiated an exchange, sending Arsinoe as a captive to Caesar and thereby securing Ptolemy’s release.

A 19th century illustration of the burning of the Library of Alexandria. Source: www.thedailybeast.com

Ptolemy maintained the siege, but eventually Mithridates of Pergamon came to the aid of the besieged Caesar and broke his forces out of the city. They met with Ptolemy’s opposing army in the Nile Delta in February of 47 B.C. The battle was fierce and hard fought, with Caesar’s forces attacking their enemy’s fortified camp. Finally, however, a contingent of the Romans managed to break through and attack Ptolemy’s forces from the rear, and the frightened army broke and scattered.

Caesar and Cleopatra

With her husband neutralized, Cleopatra emerged as the sole ruler, but she married her younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, to maintain the illusion of a male ruler. The marriage was nothing more than political theatre, and Cleopatra spent her days and nights instead with Caesar. Already a notorious womanizer in Rome, Caesar delayed in Egypt until April to enjoy his dalliance with Cleopatra, an uncharacteristic move for the ambitious general who almost never paused his military and political operations.  Yet Caesar remained captivated by Cleopatra. Suetonius claims that he joined her for a cruise down the Nile on a luxury barge, viewing the monuments and buildings of Egyptian history. She also almost certainly showed him around the Mouseion of Alexandria, and introduced him to the new style of dating which Caesar would adopt as the Julian calendar, a direct antecedent to the calendar we still use today.

Julius Caesar. August 43 BC. AR Denarius. Rome mint. Laureate head right within within pelleted border / Venus Genetrix as Felicitas holding caduceus and long scepter. www.cngcoins.com Used by permission of CNG.

When he finally left Egypt for Syria, Cleopatra was heavily pregnant, and shortly after his departure, gave birth to a boy that she named Caesarion.  Caesar remained publically silent regarding the child, neither claiming him as his own nor denying his parentage, but Cleopatra loudly declared Caesar as the father, and few doubted her. After his return to Rome, Caesar invited Cleopatra to join him in the capital city, an invitation which she gladly accepted, staying in Caesar’s villa in the Horti Caesaris, the Gardens of Caesar, outside the city walls. These would later be purchased by Sallust, and became known as the Gardens of Sullust.

Gardens of Sallust. Photo by Lalupa, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Queen of Egypt

Cleopatra was largely despised by the Romans, seen as a foreign tramp and a potential threat. Caesar did not help this distaste by commissioning a golden statue, modeled on Cleopatra, which he placed in the Temple of Venus Genetrix. Despite her unpopularity, her presence and poise remained as striking as always, and soon Roman women were imitating her hairstyle and fashions. Cleopatra and Caesarion were still in Rome when, on March 15^th of 44 B.C., a group of conspirators murdered Caesar during a meeting of the Senate.

Temple of Venus Genitrix, Forum Iulium, Rome. By Jebulon – Own work, CC0.

Cleopatra bravely remained in Rome until the reading of the will, hoping that Caesar would name Caesarion as his son. However, Caesar’s will declared his nephew, Octavius, as his sole heir. Cleopatra fled the volatile situation in Rome and returned to Egypt. Once there, she poisoned her younger brother and named her young son Caesarion as her co-ruler. She had lost Caesar and the power of his legions, but she had gained the unchallenged sole rule of Egypt.

To be continued….

The Gardens of Sallust: What to See Here?

The splendid parkland that sprawled across the valley between the Pincian Hill and Esquiline hills was first acquired by Julius Caesar in the first century BC. After the dictator’s death, the governor of Africa Nova and famous historian Sallust (author of the Catilinarian Conspiracy and Jugurthine War) purchased the property—thus giving it its enduring name—and left it to his great-nephew when he himself died in 35 BC.

Horti Sallustiani, Aula Adrianea. By Lalupa – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

In 20 AD, the gardens passed into the hands of the Emperor Tiberius and where henceforth kept and maintained by various successive Roman emperors as part of the Imperial property. Vespasian, the first of the Flavian emperors, certainly enjoyed staying there; presumably the fact it was in these very gardens that his army had fought the decisive battle that won him control of the city did nothing to keep him up at night. Nerva, the first of the following dynasty, loved them too: the gardens being the spot where he shuffled off his mortal coil in 98 AD.

View of the interior of the ruins of the Temple of Venus in the Gardens of Sallust, Rome, with four figures Etching. Engraving by Giovanni Battista Piranesi, from Varie vedute di Roma antica e moderna (Various Views of Ancient and Modern Rome), published by Fausto Amidei, 1748. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

The Gardens of Sallust were expanded under Hadrian and Aurelian; the latter, according to the Historia Augusta, adding a mile-long portico along which he would regularly ride his horse. The gardens’ beauty couldn’t save it from destruction in the fifth century however, and the gardens and its monuments were finally sacked by Alaric and his Goths in 410 after their entry into the city through the gardens’ gates.

Time has not been kind to the Gardens of Sallust. Rome’s expansion in 1871, as the capital of the Republic of Italy, saw much of the valley between the Pincio and Quirinal filled in, burying whatever had survived centuries of sackings, fires, earthquakes and destructive construction (or reconstruction) projects. Nothing survives of Aurelian’s mile long portico, nor can we find any remains of the sepulchre erected to house the bodies of two Augustan giants who apparently measured a staggering 10’3.

Sallust Gardens in Rome. By Carlo Dani – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

There are some hints of the gardens’ former glory however. The well-preserved remains of a three-storey pavilion, buried some 14 metres underground, can be seen in the centre of the modern Piazza Sallustio. A Hadrianic cistern is situated at the corner of Via San Nicola da Tolentino and Via Bissolati. And a cryptoporticus that probably dates from the third century AD is still visible from the garage of the nearby United States Embassy.

Though the Gardens of Sallust have fared badly, certain treasures recovered from them still survive spread out across the city. The obelisk that now stands at the top of the Spanish Steps was first erected in the Gardens of Sallust sometime after the death of Augustus. Likewise, the statue of the Dying Gaul now housed in the Capitoline Museums was taken from the gardens and dates from the time of Julius Caesar.

Dying Gaul – Palazzo Nuovo – Musei Capitolini, Rome. Copy after Epigonos, CC BY 2.0.

Silenus holding the child Dionysos. Marble, Roman copy of the 1st–2nd century CE after a Greek original of the late 4th century BC. Now in Louvre, France. From the Horti Sallustiani in Rome. Photo by Jastrow, Public Domain.

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Sources: Plutarch, Life of Caesar; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Appian, Civil Wars; Caesar, African Wars; Suetonius, Life of Caesar

Featured image: “Caesar giving Cleopatra the Throne of Egypt” by Pietro da Cortona. Public Domain.

Yet by the time of Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic Empire was not what it had been. Generations of kings living in luxury had weakened the ambitious of the kings and queens, family infighting and dynastic squabbles frequent, and the empire almost bankrupt. Into this situation stepped Cleopatra, a ruler more reflective of the first Ptolemaic kings – intelligent, quick, opportunistic, and ruthless when necessary – a product of the philosophic haven that was ancient Alexandria. Yet from the beginning of her reign, she was playing with a deck stacked against her.

Portrait coin of Cleopatra VII Thea Neotera. 51-30 BC. Æ Diobol – 80 Drachmai. Alexandreia mint. Used by permisson of CNG. www.cngcoins.com.

Ineffective King in a Failing Kingdom

Cleopatra was the second daughter of Ptolemy XII of Egypt. Her father had become king after a palace coup. As the illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX, he was the closest male heir. Yet by that time Egypt was already practically a weak client kingdom of Rome. Ptolemy XII did nothing to strengthen his kingdom. In fact, he was far more interested in feasting and music than in business or politics. His love of flute playing in festivals earned him the disdainful moniker Auletes, which meant flute player. Fully aware of his lack of clout as a ruler, Auletes sought desperately for the support of Rome to maintain his power.

Ptolemy XII, called “Auletes” (the “Flute Player”), 1st century BC, discovered in Egypt, Louvre Museum. By Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0.

In 63 B.C., he sent a large monetary gift along with an invitation to Pompey. Although Pompey accepted the money, he declined to visit, and Auletes followed up by traveling to Rome personally to present large sums to both Pompey and Caesar, and was acknowledged as a formal ally and friend of Rome. However, his massive gifts bankrupted Egypt, and he imposed heavy taxes on the citizens to compensate. Unrest grew until it finally exploded into open rebellion. The Egyptian people deposed Auletes and placed his eldest daughter, Berenice, on the throne.

Auletes fled to Rome along with a teenaged Cleopatra. After some initial struggles with Roman Senators opposing his bid, he finally bribed the Roman general Aulus Gabinus to invade Egypt in 55 B.C. Upon taking the palace, Auletes immediately executed his daughter Berenice and her supporters, and reigned for the next three years under considerable influence from Rome.

Challenging Circumstances for the New Queen

Yet Auletes was slowly weakening, and early in 52 B.C., he became so ill that he named Cleopatra co-regent. Having grown up in the court of her father in Alexandria, Cleopatra had been educated by some of the top philosophers of the age. In her later years, she was said to have frequently gone to the Museum of Alexandria to converse with the scholars there, and her visits likely began even earlier. By the time she became co-regent at sixteen years old she was already an intelligent, polished, and diplomatic stateswoman. She had traveled the world and experienced Rome firsthand. Her first year of co-rule gave her further administrative experience. When her father died in 51 B.C., his will named Cleopatra and her ten year old brother, Ptolemy XIII, as co-rulers. In strong Ptolemaic tradition, Cleopatra promptly married her little brother, but their cooperation was short-lived.

Sphinxes at the Serapeum of Alexandria. By Institute for the Study of the Ancient World – CC BY 2.0.

They inherited a kingdom wracked with problems. Famine devastated the land, and the soldiers left by Gabinius were becoming outlaws. On top of everything, they now owed the Roman Republic the debts incurred by their father, totaling some 17.5 million drachmas. Calculating an exact exchange with modern currency is difficult, but one drachma was about a days’ worth of wages for a skilled laborer. The full debt amounted to something like 210 billion US dollars or 178 billion Euros today.  Soon, conflict arose between the two siblings, exacerbated by the court advisors, who rightly expected they could exercise more power over the younger Ptolemy than his smart, headstrong, older sister. Eventually Cleopatra was forced to flee to Syria with her younger sister, Arsinoe. There they planned to raise an army to reclaim the throne for Cleopatra.

An Opportunity Seized

Yet at the same time, civil strife in Rome was soon to provide Cleopatra with the opportunity that she needed. Tensions between Pompey and Caesar had erupted into civil war, and eventually Pompey’s forces suffered a crushing defeat at Pharsalus. Pompey himself fled to Egypt, expecting a warm welcome on the strength of his former allegiance with Auletes. Yet the young Ptolemy thought it better to play to the winning side. He instructed his men to meet Pompey’s ships and welcome him, inviting him to come to shore in a small skiff to meet with the king. While still halfway between the ships and the shore, the men in the skiff turned on Pompey and stabbed him to death.

Portrait coin (denarius) of Pompey the Great. Struck by Sextus Pompey. 37/6 BC, Sicily. Used by permisson of CNG. www.cngcoins.com.

When Caesar arrived in Egypt in pursuit and came to the court of Ptolemy, the officials proudly offered him Pompey’s head, eagerly expecting high honors and rewards – but they fundamentally misunderstood Caesar. He turned in horror from the head and refused to even look at it. He did accept the signet ring of Pompey, also presented to him, but far from reveling in his triumph, he wept bitterly over it, and ordered his soldiers to execute the murderers. With her brother thus already on shaky ground with Caesar, Cleopatra saw her chance. Determined to meet with him, she had her friend Apollodorus carry her, concealed within a sack, into Caesar’s quarters, where she presented herself to the famous Roman to plead for his support.

Cleopatra and Caesar by Jean-Léon Gérôme –  Public Domain.

Continued here…

Sources: Plutarch, Life of Caesar; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Appian, Civil Wars; Strabo, Geography

Alexandria: What to See Here Now ?

Though the capital of Hellenistic Egypt and equally crucial to Rome’s history, modern Alexandria offers relatively little in the way of ancient Roman artifacts compared to its importance. However, there are specific sites around the modern city with ruins worth visiting.

The Chatby (or Shatby) Necropolis in Alexandria is said to be the oldest Hellenistic necropolis in the city, with Egyptian, Hellenistic Greek and Roman influences. Much of the necropolis is visible at ground level, and many artefacts from the site are preserved at the Alexandria National Museum nearby.

Chatby necropolis in Alexandria. By Nikola Smolenski – Own work. CC BY-SA 3.0.

The necropolis in Alexandria now referred to as the Kom El Shoqafa Catacombs included a mixture of Roman, Greek and Egyptian features as well as the bones of Christians martyred during the reign of the emperor Caracalla. Much of the necropolis remains intact underground, including decorations and a circular staircase that was used to carry the deceased below the surface.

Exhibition area, Kom el-Shuqafa, Alexandria, Egypt. By Roland Unger, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Entrance of the principal tomb chamber. By Clemens Schmillen – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Kom el-Dikka, a suburb of Alexandria, is the site of a number of structures dating back to the Roman period including a small theatre, a substantial villa, and a modest bath complex. The theatre is fairly intact, with a number of columns and much of the stone seating still in place.

Roman Amphitheater of Alexandria. By ASaber91 – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

The Serapeum of Alexandria was an important Greek temple originally constructed in the third century B.C. Relatively little remains visible above ground, but surviving catacombs below the temple may have been used for worship of Serapis. A marble statue of Mithras was also recovered from the site. Pompey’s Pillar, a huge free-standing monolithic triumphal column nearby, was erected on the site in AD 297 by the Emperor to commemorate the successful suppression of an Alexandrian revolt.

The remains of the ancient site of the Temple complex of Sarapis at Alexandria. By Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. CC BY 2.0.

Serapeum of Alexandria. So called “Pompey’s Pillar”. By Hatem Moushir – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,

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Source of the features image: “Cleopatra on the Terraces of Philae” by Frederick Arthur Bridgman – Public Domain.

Modern day Corfu, known in ancient times as Korkyra, is another island with a history steeped in mythology, from its origin story to its place in several more famous legends. Korkyra was one of the three most powerful maritime nations in the Classical world, joining Athens and Corinth in that distinction. Its original inhabitants are not well understood by historians, though traditional tales offer an explanation. However, by about 730 B.C., Korkyra had received an influx of Corinthian colonists. Despite this connection to Corinth, Korkyra remained largely at odds with her mother city, choosing instead to ally with Athens.

Roman Baths of Palaiopolis on Corfu, By Alkis Pappas – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

During the Hellenistic period, Korkyra endured several sieges and occupations, changing hands throughout the frequent wars and infighting that followed the death of Alexander the Great. With the rise of Rome, Korkyra became an important Roman naval base, eventually attached to the province of Macedonia. It served as Octavian’s base of operations leading up to his confrontation with Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Antium.

What’s in a Name

Korkyra has been given several names throughout history. Before being called Korkyra, the island was apparently known as Drepane, which means scythe. The name likely derived from the sickle shape of the island initially, but it has come to refer to other mythological moments. Apollonius indicates that the island’s name referred to the sickle that Cronus used to castrate his father, Uranus. The sickle was said to be hidden somewhere on the island, and the inhabitants, known as Phaeacians, descendants of Uranus’s blood. Another account says that the sickle hidden on the island belongs to Demeter.

Gorgon at the Artemis Temple pediment, By Dr.K. – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

The name Korkyra originally belonged to a beautiful nymph, daughter of the river-god Asopus and sister to Aegina, who also gave her name to a Mediterranean island. Poseidon fell deeply in love with Korkyra, and carried her off to the Grecian island, which in his rapture he named after his new lover. Poseidon and Korkyra had one son, Phaiax, whose name became that of the people of Korkyra, the Phaeacians. The name also may bear some link to the monstrous Gorgon, Medusa, slain by Perseus. An image of the Gorgon featured prominently on the west façade of the temple of Artemis on Korkyra.

Vue du site archéologique de Paleopoli à Corfou (Kardaki_Temple), By Jean Housen – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

A Hospitable Nation

Korkyra proved to be a welcoming and hospitable island, offering sanctuary to multiple famous figures in mythological accounts, including Jason and the Argonauts. A hero and heir descended from Hermes, Jason was challenged to retrieve the Golden Fleece in order to reclaim his rightful throne. After numerous adventures during their travels, Jason and his Argonauts arrived in Colchis. The king offered to surrender the Golden Fleece only if Jason performed three tasks – designed to be impossible. Luckily for Jason, the king’s sorceress daughter, Medea, had fallen for the mysterious stranger and assisted him in completing the tasks, absconding with the Golden Fleece, and fleeing the island. On their return journey, pursued by the Colchians, they landed at Korkyra and were welcomed by King Alcinoos. Jason and Medea were married on the island of Korkyra in “Medea’s Cave.”

Ruis of the roman baths in Palaiopolis, By Kritzolina – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

The same king also aided another, very famous hero. In Homer’s Odyssey, Odysseus and his men are shipwrecked near Korkyra and washed ashore on the island thanks to the guidance of Athena. The Princess Nausikaa, washing her clothes in a nearby stream with some friends, found Odysseus and brought him to her father. King Alcinoos not only gladly hosted the hero, but even presented him with the gift of a ship to take him back to his home in Ithaca. Unfortunately, the ship did not survive the journey, but was turned to stone by Poseidon, still infuriated at Odysseus for blinding one of his sons, the Cyclops.

Corcyra Stater 4th century BC. Obverse: Cow standing l., looking back at suckling calf standing r. below. Reverse: K – O – P Double stellate pattern, divided by double line, in linear square frame. Source: Classical Numismatic Group, www.cngcoins.com, used by permission of CNG.

Achilles’ Palace

One of the most famous modern structures on the island also has a connection to mythology, though only through admiration not through tradition. In 1890, the Empress of Austria built a summer palace on Korkyra called the Achilleion. The structure is meant to evoke ancient Grecian architecture and the sprawling palace is covered with paintings and statues dedicated to the great hero, Achilles.

Terrace of Achilleon, CC BY-SA 3.0.

What to See Here?

Korkyra’s Old Town is on the UNESCO World Heritage List, but much of this is a result of the medieval fortifications in the city that were built to protect it from invasions by Pirates and the Ottomans. That being said, there are a few traces of the city’s classical past to be seen.

The most prominent classical remnant in Korkyra is the Sanctuary of Artemis, near the Monastery of St Theodore. Dated to about 585 B.C., it is one of the most archaic pseudoperipteral – which simply means free-standing columns at the front, whereas the side columns are engaged, meaning they’re built into the cella wall – Doric order Temple. The temple’s significance derives from its mythological decoration.

Remnants of Artemis Sanctuary in Corfu, By Dr.K. – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Titanomachy at the Gorgon pediment at Artemis Temple in the Corfu museum. By Dr.K. – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

There are a few early Christian remains in Korkyra, including the Church of Haghia Kerkyra.
A range of sculptural remains, and other smaller-scale recoveries from the city, are display in the archaeological museum.

Ruins of Agia Kerkyra church or Paleopoli Basilica, By Marc Ryckaert (MJJR) – Own work, CC BY 3.0.

Kerkyra on TimeTravelRome:

Ancient Kerkyra is among hundreds of Classical sites featured in the TimeTravelRome app:

Header image: Горгона храм Артеміди Корфу (from the pediment of the Artemis Temple), By Liubomir G – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Trapped in Greece

Antony had been enjoying his rule and his lavish lifestyle from the ancient city of Alexandria in Egypt. He had also been enjoying the attentions of Cleopatra, Egypt’s queen, despite his previous marriage to Octavian’s sister. Octavian used Antony’s dalliances to great advantage back in Rome, vilifying Antony for his unfaithfulness. It helped his cause even further that Octavia remained the picture of a noble Roman wife, devotedly caring for her and Antony’s children even as Antony made plans to divorce her and marry his Egyptian queen. Antony’s devotion to Cleopatra proved much of his undoing. Octavian was able to convince most of the Senate that Antony intended to undermine the power of Rome and hand control to foreigners in the East.

As conflict became inevitable, Antony and Cleopatra moved their forces to Greece, positioning the main strength of their navy in the port of Actium. Moving quickly, Octavian moved his forces by ship across the Adriatic Sea to attack Antony in Greece. Landing much of the army north of Actium, Octavian led his soldiers to cut off Antony and Cleopatra’s escape route by land. Meanwhile, Agrippa, commanding the navy, blockaded the port and cut off the supply lines. As the siege continued and Antony’s position grew worse, his soldiers deserted him in large numbers to Octavian. Eventually Cleopatra, who commanded her own ships in Antony’s fleet, convinced Antony and his generals that they should abandon the fortified positions in Greece and escape by boat back to Egypt. From there, they could launch a much stronger defense.

Escape from Actium

Octavian learned of their plan from deserters of Antony’s camp. As a result, he believed that he should allow Antony and Cleopatra to slip past but prepare to attack them from behind. This way, when he proved to their men that they intended to flee, he hoped to win over the soldiers to his cause with little fighting and bloodshed. However, he capitulated to the advice of Agrippa, who knew the ships better and feared that if Antony and Cleopatra came past in their lightest ships, the slower Roman vessels would not be able to catch them. As a result, Octavian prepared his vessels for a full confrontation. Soon after, Antony and Cleopatra led their fleet out of the port at Actium. However, they made no attempt to engage until Octavian and Agrippa moved to surround them. Forced reluctantly into battle, they advanced to meet their enemies.

“[Octavian’s] followers, having smaller and swifter ships, would dash forward and ram the enemy, being armoured on all sides to avoid receiving damage. If they sank a vessel, well and good; if not, they would back water before coming to grips, and would either ram the same vessels suddenly again, or would let those go and turn their attention to others…The enemy, on the other hand, tried to hit the approaching ships with dense showers of stones and arrows, and to cast iron grapnels upon their assailants. And in case they could reach them they got the better of it, but if they missed, their own boats would be pierced and would sink, or else in their endeavour to avoid this calamity they would waste time and lay themselves more open to attack by other ships.”

Flight and Defeat

In this way, the battle continued indecisive for a long while. Eventually, a sudden decision by Cleopatra began to turn the tide. Hoping for an escape, and with the wind turning favorably for them to sail toward Egypt, she unexpectedly turned her flagship from the battle and signaled for her followers to do the same. Thinking that they were running because they thought the battle lost, Antony also turned and fled. His remaining vessels grew confused and disheartened, and made to raise their sails and follow. Yet while they made these preparations, Octavian and Agrippa attacked, and the close quarters fighting turned brutal and bitter. When the battle still remained undecided, Octavian’s forces reluctantly turned to their final resort. Sending flaming arrows and missiles onto the enemy ships, they set them ablaze. 

“When the fire spread, the most terrible of fates came upon them. Some, and particularly the sailors, perished by the smoke before the flame so much as approached them, while others were roasted in the midst of it as though in ovens. Others were consumed in their armour when it became heated.  There were still others, who, before they should suffer such a death, or when they were half-burned, threw off their armour and were wounded by the shots which came from a distance, or again leaped into the sea and were drowned, or were struck by their opponents and sank. Those alone found a death that was tolerable, considering the sufferings which prevailed, who were killed by their fellows in return for the same service, or else killed themselves, before any such fate could befall them; for they not only had no tortures to endure.”

Founding of Nicopolis

Knowing they would not be able to catch the fleeing Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian and Agrippa made no immediate move to do so. Instead, they first celebrated their victory, establishing a festival in honor of the battle and also founding the city of Nicopolis on the site where Octavian had made his camp. The city prospered as a successful center for commerce and eventually became the capital of the Roman province of Epirus Vetus under Emperor Trajan. Nicopolis took damage from an earthquake in 375 B.C., and then at the hands of maurading Goths, Huns, and Vandals. It was restored by Emperor Justinian in the mid-6^th century, but eventually lost its economic pre-eminence to the city of Preveza in the Middle Ages.

What to See Here:

Modern visitors can enjoy a a wealth of archaeological remains of ancient Nicopolis. The site is referred to as Palaea Preveza (Old Preveza). It is bounded by the remains of the defensive fortifications. They are a combination of the original Augustan structures and the Justinianic rebuilds. To the west, there is an Odeion, the impressive remains of the city’s Hadrianic aqueduct, and a bath building. There are also the remains of the stadium which was the venue for the famous Actian Games. These are the games that the Emperor Nero was so victorious in during his tour of the Hellenistic provinces in the mid-1st century A.D. The remains of the villa of Manius Antoninus are notable for the splendour of the mosaics that have survived. The nearby Archaeological Museum of Nicopolis is rich in the finds from the site and worth a visit.

Nikopolis on Timetravelrome App:

Sources:  Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Cassius Dio, Roman History.

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Battle of Actium, a painting by Lorenzo A. Castro, now in Royal Museums Greenwich. The image is in the public domain.