Eulesian Mysteries

The ritual’s three parts reflected Demeter’s actions according to the myth: descent, search, and ascent. As a ritual rooted in agrarian cult practice, the story symbolised rebirth: not just of the crops in the soil but of the people, its participants, from generation to generation.

Votive relief in Pentelic marble representing Demeter, Persephone and Triptolemos found in Eleusis 440-430 BC. Source: TimeTravelRome.  Dedicated to the sanctuary of Demeter and Kore at Eleusis, it represents a scene from the mystery ritual. At left Demeter holding a scepter offers ears of wheat to Triptolemos, son of the Eleusian king Keleos, to bestow on mankind. At right Persephone, holding a torch, blesses Triptolemos with her right hand. This relief was famous in antiquity and copied in Roman times.

Frustratingly, however, we know practically nothing about it. In the Greek world, the punishment for divulging what actually took place during the Mysteries was death (a punishment that the Athenian Diagoras suffered and the playwright Aeschylus narrowly avoided). It’s little surprise, therefore, that today we are faced with a dearth of information.

Reconstructed interior of the Telesterion with brazier and torch lights in procession. Source: Anasynthesis.

Despite the fact that we have no written testimonies on the mysteries, the monuments of ancient Eleusis – described below – allow us to reconstruct several key elements of the ancient rite.

The Eleusinian Mysteries certainly found popularity among the Romans. Several emperors were initiated into the cult (the last one being Julian, the final pagan emperor). Several buildings and constructions – some of which are still visible today – were built by the Roman Emperors, who profoundly reorganized the territory of the Eleusis sanctuary.

Anasynthesis – 3D reconstruction of the Eulesis Sanctuary. Source: Anasynthesis.

But as Christianity permeated the empire as the dominant religion, less attention was given to Eleusian Mysteries. Eventually in 392 AD the Mysteries were banned by official decree issued by the Emperor Theodosius.

The sanctuary in the 2nd century AD. Torchlight procession to the Telesterion. Source: Anasynthesis.

Eleusis Telesterion

As part of the nine-day festival of Eleusinia, during the month of Boedromion, the Telesterion (or Initiation Hall) was the focal point of the Eleusinian Mysteries. Following the re-enactment of the Homeric Hymn of Demeter and Persephone, the sacred relics of Demeter were revealed to the initiates within the hall. During the ceremonies, the initiates stood on tiers of eight steps arrayed around each side of the naos.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – Telesterion. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The earliest cult building on the site of the Telesterion was the Anaktoron of the 7th century BC. During excavations at the site, archaeologists found a series of five pits related to the earliest use of the cult building below the porch area of the Telesterion. The pits were built of poros stone and were dug down to the bedrock. They contained animal bones and were likely the megara into which piglets were thrown during the early rites of the Thesmophoria – the religious festival, held in honor of the goddess Demeter and her daughter Persephone.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – Telesterion. Aerial view. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The early cult building was enlarged by Solon, and then later by Peisistratus. Each new building was constructed around the previous sacred site without demolishing the earlier buildings. The Peisistratean-era poros stone Telesterion measured 25x 27 meters with a columned porch on the eastern side and decorative Parian marble cornice. In 480 BC, the Telesterion was destroyed by the Persians and reconstruction started under Kimon.

The Classical Telesterion was designed in the mid-5th century BC under Pericles by the architect, Iktinos, who also designed the Athenian Parthenon. It was built as an almost-square naos with 20 columns supporting a roof with an open oculus at the center. A portico with twelve Doric columns was added around 318 BC.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – Telesterion. Source: TimeTravelRome.

In AD 170, Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, rebuilt the Telesterion again after damage by an invading local tribe. The hall was enlarged once more to measure 51 x 53 meters, with a capacity of 2,000 people. This large, 2nd century gathering hall had 42 columns arranged in a regularly spaced rectangle of seven rows of six columns. Following Iktinos’s design, the columns supported an open roof over the naos. Decorative elements were completed in Pentelic marble. A niche displaying the throne of the Hierophant was located in the northeast corner. At this time, the rock-cut seats around the naos were faced with marble.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – Telesterion – seats cut in rock for initiates. Source: TimeTravelRome.

After the Eleusinian Mysteries were banned in the late 4th century AD, the Telesterion was destroyed by the Visigoths and never rebuilt.

Telesterion and Sacred area in Roman times. By Zde – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Kallichoron Well

Located alongside the Greater Propylaea at the entrance to the Sanctuary, the Kallichoron Well (the sacred well) was among the most sacred areas related to the festival of Eleusis. According to legend, Demeter rested alongside a well when she first arrived at Eleusis looking for Persephone. The Eleusian women danced around the well in honour of the goddess. While the archaic well referred to in the myth is thought to be the Well of the Maidens alongside the Telesterion, from the 6th century, under Peisistratos, a special festival of the dances was performed in the Sacred Court by young Eleusinian women. The Kallichoron Well (meaning Well of the Fair Dances) was constructed at this time. The well itself is made of polygonal blocks of Eleusinian stone, to a current depth of 6 meters. The well head is made from two concentric circles of tightly fitting and well-cut blocks of Eleusinian stone.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – Kallichoron well. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The upper circle of the well consists of four connected blocks, and the lower circle of eight blocks each connected by metal clamps. The well is separated from the Roman Court by a low wall constructed in the blue-grey Eleusinian stone in the 5th century. Two doorways gave access to the well enclosure. When the court was paved in the Roman period, the lower step into the well area was cut away to ensure it did not impose upon the sacred enclosure of the Kallichoron Well.

Reconstruction of he Kallichoron well according to D. Giraud. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The Kallichoron Well remains well preserved. Visitors can see the ancient well-head and the surrounding wall in Eleusinian stone. The ground level of the well-head is 1.35 meters lower than that of the Roman Court as it was not re-paved over successive periods as happened with the courtyard.

Sacred Way

The nineteen kilometer long road from Athens to Eleusis was referred to as the Hiera Odos, or the Sacred Way. From Eleusis, the road connected Athens to the Peloponnese. The road was on average 5 meters wide, and paved with small stones with upright blocks forming an edge along each side. In the later Roman period, the Sacred Way was paved in marble and stone slabs. The priests of Temple of Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis were responsible for its maintenance. During the Eleusinian Mysteries, a procession began on the 19th day of Boedromion at the Sacred Gate of the Athenian cemetery (the Kerameikos). Close to Athens, the Sacred Way was lined with tombs and monuments. Further along the ancient path, many sanctuaries lined the road, such as the temple of Aphrodite at Dafni. As the procession crossed the river just east of the entrance to the Sanctuary, each initiate would tie a saffron ribbon around their left foot and right hand, and drink a special sacramental potion (the kykeon) before the final leg of their journey.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – Sacred way. Source: TimeTravelRome.

After his initiation into the Mysteries in AD 125, Roman Emperor Hadrian erected the Bridge of Eleusinian Kifissos to aid pilgrims crossing the river. The procession would enter the Sanctuary at Eleusis to gather at the Sacred Court.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – Marble slabs of the Sacred way. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The modern highway of the Iera Odos between Elefsina and Athens follows the ancient path of the Sacred Way. The path of the ancient procession once the pilgrims entered the Sanctuary is referred to as the Processional Way and is the path following by visitors today. Many of the artefacts uncovered from along the Sacred Way are displayed in the Archaeological Museum of Eleusis and the Acropolis Museum in Athens.

Eschara

The Roman-era Eschara remains well preserved. Eschara is an altar dated to roman times but excavations have revealed remains dating to the 8th century BC. This altar was constructed as a brick-lined pit within an enclosing wall. Sacrifices to the chthonic deities were burned within the pit. Notches visible around the edge of the altar were used to support an iron grille used for burning meat offerings. The fire was supplied with air through a system of six channels from top to bottom on the lateral walls.

Ground altar Eschara or Grate in Eleusis. Source: TimeTravelRome.

Ploutonion

The Ploutonion was originally a natural cavern that was considered to be the entrance to Hades through which Pluto carried Persephone each autumn, and was then used by Persephone to ascend to the earth each spring. The cavern was the first sacred site visible to initiates as they entered the Sanctuary gate via the North Pylon (and later Lesser Propylaea). During the Peisistratean period, a small temple shrine was constructed within the cave.

The Ploutonion. By Carole Raddato – Plutonion, Eleusis, CC BY-SA 2.0.

The cavern itself consists of two large chambers, and would likely have been used as part of the cult performances during the Eleusinian Mysteries. The upper portion of the cavern chambers would have been visible to initiates standing on the Sacred Way slightly below the level of the triangular platform. An elliptical opening in the side wall of the smaller, northern chamber gave access to a rock-cut stairway on the outside of the cave. This opening would have allowed someone to enter the cave and then appear on the other side of the Ploutonion. This suggests that it could have been used to enact Persephone’s decent into the underworld and ascent to Eleusis.

Siroi

Siroi were Magazines into which were collected the “aparchai”, the first fruits of the year’s harvest, at a ratio of at least of 1/200 for weat and 1/600 for barley, which all the cities had to offer to Goddess Demeter, as a kind of tax. The delivery of “aparchai” was necessary before the Mysteries were performed in Autumn.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – Siroi – Magazines where first fruits of the year were stored. Source: TimeTravelRome.

Lykourgian Wall

The Lykourgian Wall and its South Gate were built as fortifications for the Sanctuary between 370 and 360 BC. Although attributed to Lykourgos, they were constructed well before his term in office which began in 337 BC. The Lykourgian Wall extended southward from the line of the earlier Peisistratean wall. The lower section of the walls were built of rectangular cut blue-gray Eleusinian stone in regular courses. The faces are roughly worked although the sides are precisely cut with tight joins. In some areas, the wall also acted as a retaining wall and was up to 4 meters thick. Circular towers with a diameter of around 9 to 10 meters were spaced along the length of the wall. Along the western perimeter of the Lykourgian Wall, a single square tower gave access to the South Gate. While all initiates accessed the Sanctuary from the main, northern entrance, the road from the harbour led to the South Gate.

Lykourgian Wall an the South Gate. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The entire Lykourgian Wall was built with exquisite craftsmanship and it remains standing today. The full southern perimeter is visible including the circular towers and the entrance to the Sanctuary at the South Gate. Along the eastern perimeter, the wall is partially visible behind the Roman Cisterns. The different stone materials used in its construction are clearly visible. Several large fragments of inscribed architrave are displayed along the wall including one near the South Gate which reads, ‘Eleusinian Games’.

Circular tower and the Wall. Source: TimeTravelRome.

Bouleuterion

The Hellenistic Bouleuterion was among the most important buildings in the sanctuary during the 3rd century BC. Located just inside the southern boundary of the slightly earlier peribolos wall, an inscription reveals that it was built to function as the headquarters for the council of Eleusis.

During the Roman period, the Bouleuterion was modified. The entire length of the building was converted into a stoa. A colonnade extended the full 34 meter length of the original council chamber with an inner and outer row of columns. Partial remains of columns from this area suggest they were of white marble with Ionic capitals. The semi-circular central room was later converted into an Odeion built of grey marble. At the northeastern corner of the Bouleuterion was a pedestal with an attached water basin. A medieval structure was built over the Bouleuterion destroying all but the foundations and lower walls.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – Bouleuterion.

The rectangular foundations of the Bouleuterion are visible, in particular the semi-circular steps of the Roman-era odeion. The stepped pedestal, inscribed stelai, column fragments, and scattered architectural elements from the Roman period remain throughout the area.

Eleusis in Roman Times

• Roman Court

Pilgrims on the journey along the Sacred Way from Athens would gather at the Sacred Court. In Roman times the court was paved in marble and is referred to today as the Roman Court. Situated on the northern side of the Sanctuary, the courtyard area measured 65 x 40 meters and was lavishly decorated and monumentalized during the Roman period. From its earliest days, the courtyard contained the Eschara or ground-altar dedicated to Persephone. This altar was constructed as a brick-lined pit within an enclosing wall. Sacrifices to the chthonic deities were burned within the pit, and excavations have revealed remains dating to the 6th century BC.

Roman Court of Eleusis. Source: TimeTravelRome.

Construction of the Roman Courtyard was begun under Hadrian and later completed by Marcus Aurelius. The Romans monumentalized the courtyard with the construction of two triumphal arches, an elaborate fountain-house, a temple, an exedra for dignitaries overseeing the procession, and a podium displaying statues. The statues on display included several dedicated to the family of Antoninus Pius, which were arranged in the court near the triumphal arch.

• Greater Propylaea

An inner and outer gate existed at the northern entrance to the Sanctuary from the earliest date of construction. Under Kimon in the 5th century, the gate was elaborated with the construction of the North Pylon, marble pilasters, and a 2-winged wooden door measuring 3 metres in width. During the Roman era, around AD 180, the Sanctuary entrance was vastly monumentalised with the construction of the Greater Propylaea (or gateway) which stood 16 metres high. Part of the dedicatory inscription over the gate and the carved bust of the Roman emperor who oversaw its construction have survived, however both are badly damaged. The carved bust is generally interpreted as depicting Marcus Aurelius, although it may instead show either Hadrian or Antoninus Pius.

Sanctuary of Eleusis – the Greater Propylaea. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The monumental gateway consists of a northern exterior portico facing the Roman Court. Six steps lead to the porch which is 1.7 metres above the level of the courtyard. The portico was 15.2 metres deep with a facing row of Doric columns and two rows each of three Ionic columns along its depth to divide the entrance into three aisles. The huge facing Doric columns were 8.8 metres high with a diameter of 1.6 meters.

Sanctuary of Eleusis – the Greater Propylaea. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The colonnade supported an entablature with a simple architrave, and decorative frieze of alternating triglyphs and metopes, and an overall triangular pediment. The bust of the Roman Emperor within a carved shield was originally mounted on the pediment. A separate door on one side gave access to the sacred area of the Kallichoron Well.

Sanctuary of Eleusis – the Greater Propylaea. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The lower portion of the Greater Propylaea itself is well preserved, although no columns remain standing to their full height. Visitors can walk up the outer stairway and enter the sanctuary through the gateway as the ancient pilgrims did in the past. The pedestal bases of the inner rows of Ionic columns remain in-situ and the marble flooring shows wear along the aisles leading through each of the passageways. Deep grooves in the marble remain from the movement of the doors.

Sanctuary of Euleusis – the Greater Propylaea. Traces from the movement of the doors. Source: TimeTravelRome.

Visitors can also see the many inscribed quadrisected circles and squares that have been drawn onto the steps of the Propylaea – these are the remains of ancient gaming boards that are often found within Roman baths and religious sanctuaries, although their purpose is unclear.

Sanctuary of Eleusis – the Greater Propylaea. Board games on marches. Source: TimeTravelRome.

• Triumphal Arches

Shortly after AD 129, two triumphal arches were built to mark the south-east and south-western entrances to the Roman Court. Pilgrims entering the Sanctuary from Megara would enter through the Western Arch, and those from the harbour would enter via the Eastern Arch. Made of Pentelic marble, the two-storey arches were made to resemble the triumphal arch of Hadrian in Athens. They were constructed under Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius. Each arch was made with a single arched gateway spanning 4.8 meters.

Remains of the East Triumphal Arch.

The facades were decorated with Corinthian pilasters. Between the pilasters on both faces stood a Corinthian column whose lower base was decorated with carved cross-torches (the symbol of the Goddesses). The top of the arch was inscribed with the phrase, “All the Greeks to the Goddesses and the Emperor”. Above the inscription level was an additional attic pediment made to resemble an aedicular shrine. It was built with a row of four Corinthian columns.

Place of the East Triumphal Arch. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The southeastern triumphal arch is the better preserved of the two arches with reconstruction work showing the arrangement of the entranceway to the Sanctuary. While the columns are no longer standing visitors can see the remains of the elaborate Corinthian capitals. The ornate pediment has also been partially reconstructed. The inscription is displayed alongside the remains of the arch.

Location of the West Triumphal Arch. Source: TimeTravelRome

• Fountainhouse

During the Hadrianic monumentalization of the northern entrance court to the Sanctuary, a fountainhouse was built along the south-eastern wall of the Roman Court. At the same time cisterns and water drainage channels were constructed under the paved courtyard. The fountainhouse was built in Roman concrete and lined with marble. Excavators found a fragmentary inscription nearby which was likely mounted alongside the fountain. It recorded Emperor Hadrian’s dedication to the goddesses by bringing water to the sanctuary.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – Fountain House. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The remains of the fountainhouse are visible on the eastern edge of the courtyard alongside the remains of the triumphal arch. The long basin remains in-situ, and the marble-lined step above the basin shows the eroded imprints from centuries of flowing water as it fell from the waterspouts. Fallen decorative elements from the fountain entablature remain scattered on the raised area above the courtyard.

• Roman Fountains

During Hadrian’s remodelling of the water supply at Eleusis, he oversaw the construction of several new cisterns, an extensive drainage system, and several fountains. Built against the eastern side of the Periklean peribolos wall of the Sanctuary, alongside the Sacred Way, a large Roman Fountain was constructed around AD 129. The fountain was within arm’s reach of the initiates and pilgrims as they walked along the paved pathway. It was used freely by visitors to refresh themselves during the festival. Water for the fountains came from the large cisterns located near the Greater Propylaea via a series of brick aqueducts. The water then settled within the six long, angular brick cisterns that were built against the side of the wall. It would have appeared as a grand and imposing structure with the full height of the fountain lined in marble and ornamental spouts along its full length. As it fell, the flowing water was collected in the shaped channel in front of the fountain and directed outside of the sanctuary towards the river.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – roman fountains and cisterns. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The marble façade and decorative elements no longer service, however the series of rectangular holding tanks for the fountain’s water remain. Several of these are partially damaged allowing visitors to see the inner construction and lining of the tanks. The underground aqueduct that connected the fountain to the water cisterns near the Greater Propylaea is exposed in several locations, and visitors can explore the ruins alongside the Sacred Way to trace the path of the Hadrian’s extensive water system.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – roman fountains and cisterns. Source: TimeTravelRome.

• Mithraeum – Mithraion

In the late Roman period, the southern perimeter outside the Sanctuary walls saw an increase in Roman occupation unrelated to the Eleusinian Mysteries. This included the gymnasium, baths, and a building thought to be a temple to Mithras. A number of foreign cults were introduced to Eleusis during the Roman period, including that of Mithras from Persia.

Mithraeum and Gymnasium at Eleusis. Source: TimeTravelRome.

• Temple of Artemis Propylaia

The Temple of Artemis Propylaia (before the gate) and Poseidon Pater is located outside of the main Sanctuary within the Roman Court. It was built in the early 2nd century on top of an 8th century apsidal temple. The earlier temple was likely a Hekataion, or sanctuary of Hecate, who was considered to be the guardian of the crossroads. The apsidal temple was oriented to overlook the approach of the Sacred Way. The later temple of Artemis and Poseidon was built on a raised Roman concrete podium and aligned to overlook the Roman Court. The temple was constructed of Pentelic marble with timber beams supporting a tiled roof.  Its pediment was decorated with triglyphs. Two altars stood in front of the temple.

Archaeological Site of Eleusis – Temple of Artemis Propylaia. Source: TimeTravelRome.

The stepped podium remains intact with the Roman-concrete platform showing clearly the arrangement of the temple and altars within the courtyard. A large number of decorative elements are also displayed around the edge of the temple podium.

• Temple of Faustina

This Roman-era temple was initially referred to as Temple L10 by early excavators.  It sits atop the hill immediately north of the Telesterion and over 7 meters above ground level. A large area of the rocky spur was levelled for its construction in the later half of the 2nd century AD.  Although no dedicatory inscriptions or statues have been found to suggest which divinity the temple honoured, it has been suggested that this Roman temple was built for Faustina the Elder, wife of Antoninus, by Marcus Aurelius, who married her daughter.

Remains of Sabina Temple at Eleusis. Source: TimeTravelRome.

Very little of the Temple of Faustina remains. The post-Byzantine era Church of Panagitsa was built over the eastern portion of the Roman temple. The foundations of the temple as well as the pavement, threshold, and door emplacements have survived. The marble pavement is best preserved in the south-west corner. At the bottom of the narrow staircase, the square opening for the wooden barricade can still be seen.

Eleusis in springtime. Source: TimeTravelRome.

Eleusis on TimeTravelRome Mobile App

The site of Eleusis is covered extensively on the Timetravelrome app: a very detailed guide is provided to App users.

All roads lead to Rome, or so the old proverb goes. For those of us with an interest in the ancient world, it’s a saying that still very much rings true to this day. Whether it’s a chance to explore the remains of the ancient city itself in the Forum, or the opportunity to get up close and personal with the masterpieces of ancient art in the city’s many museums, there is more than enough to keep you interested for days and weeks – and probably longer!

We’ve previously explored 5 of the best sites in the north of Italy, so now we turn our attention to the south. Away from the ancient capital of Empire, there was an eclectic mix of cultures in Italy, as expanding Roman influence mingled freely – though not without controversy and conflict in some instances – with the Hellenic cultures that had been brought to Italy via Greek colonisers, whilst the influences of the Near East and North Africa were never far away either.

Below are 5 of the best sites to explore in the south of Italy.

1. Capua

Just to the south of Rome in the Campania region, the ancient city of Capua was founded – at best estimates – in around 600 BC. This is based on assertion of Cato the Elder, the staunchly conservative senator of the 3^rd century BC, who also claimed that the city was founded by the Etruscans. Roman influence in the region began in earnest in around 424 BC, when the Etruscans settled here sought Roman assistance against the invading Samnites.

This connection was confirmed by 312, then Capua was connected to the city of Rome itself by the Via Appia, which leads south-east out of the capital. The prominence of the city grew significantly, and by the period of the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) it was able to put significant forces into the field for battle. Originally allied to Rome, the great victory of Hannibal at Cannae in 216 BC – in which he inflicted one of the worst defeats of Roman history – prompted the Capuans to renege on their oaths to Rome and ally with Carthage. Such was the prominence of the city, that Hannibal and his men actually wintered in the city.

Of course, the Romans eventually drove the Carthaginians out of the Italian peninsula, and after this war of attrition, those who had allied with Hannibal were punished severely. Capua was no different, and following a length siege, the city was captured by the Romans in 211 BC and made an example of; its magistrates were abolished, the lucky inhabitants who survived were deprived of their civic rights, and its territory was declared to be a Roman possession.

Despite these political hardships, Capua remained wealthy. This was in part thanks to agriculture – the region was excellent for growing spelt, which had a variety of uses – whilst it was also a centre for the manufacturing of bronze. Historians, including Cato the Elder and Pliny the Elder have attested to the quality of the Capuan wares in the highest terms. Accordingly, the city remained a by-word for opulence. It features scarcely in the historical record of the imperial period; it expanded as a colony from Julius Caesar onwards, growing in size again under Mark Antony, Augustus, and Nero. It evidently remained significant, if inconspicuous, in the late antique period, with the 4^th century poet and rhetorician Ausonius including the city as part of list of major Roman cities in the Ordo urbium nobilium.

DID YOU KNOW?: The poet Ausonius, who lived during the 4^th century AD, produced a poem – the ordo urbium nobilium – to commemorate a journey he had taken through the Roman empire in around AD 390. Listing the top 20 most important cities in the Roman Empire, it places Rome as number 1, with Constantinople and Carthage tied in second. Capua comes in at number 8, whilst, of course, Ausonius’ native Burdigala (Bordeaux) has a place in the list, finishing at number 20. We wonder how many stars Ausonius would have given the cities on the TimeTravel Rome app?

Visitors to the modern city of Capua are unfortunate in that there are no pre-Roman remains to explore. However, a wealth of smaller material from this era has been recovered, notably from tombs that date from the 7^th to 5^th centuries BC. These have included frescos, bronze artworks, and even in some instances, inscribed votive offerings that have preserved Etruscan script! Across the city, evidence of Roman antiquity is everywhere visible, including the remains of the so-called Arch of Hadrian. This originally marble clad, 3-bayed arch (now, only two survive), spans across the route of the Via Appia itself.

The Arch of Hadrian spanning the Appian Way, Northern side, Capua. By Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0,

Elsewhere in the city are the remains of the thermae and an Augustan era theatre. For those interested in the syncretism of Roman religion, it is possible to visit the city’s mithraeum, a subterranean place of worship, dedicated to the eastern deity Mithras (identifiable by his pointed Phrygian cap, and known to have been worshipped all over the Roman Empire from the 3^rd onwards).

Mithraeum – Santa Maria Capua Vetere. By Danilovarphotos – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Located outside of the modern city, the standout monument of Capua is the ancient amphitheatre. This arena, originally built by Augustus but restored by Hadrian and dedicated by Antonius Pius, was the second largest in the Empire, behind only the Colosseum itself. It should come as no surprise to hear that Capua was famous for its gladiatorial training schools, and indeed, it was here in 73 BC that the revolt of Spartacus first started! Although much of the building material has since been spoliated (reused) in the medieval period, visitors today still gain a great insight into the size of the arena and a sense of the spectacles that must have unfolded here.

Inside the amphitheater of Santa Maria Capua Vetere. By Dom De Felice e Carla Nunziata – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

2. Sperlonga

Located just to the south of Rome (but still in the Latin province), the coastal site of Sperlonga is a by word for imperial opulence. Located between the Via Appia and the Pontine Marshes. It was originally the site of a sprawling Republican-era villa but the land soon came into the possession of the emperor Tiberius, who also took ownership of the famous grotto at this site. It was inside this grotto that the emperor Tiberius – known for his appreciation of fine art, as evidenced by the infamous Apoxymenos anecdote (see Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 34.61-2) – created perhaps the most elaborate dining room in Roman history. The emperor converted this natural opening in the coastal cliff as a magnificent triclinium, or dining room.

Villa of Tiberius (Sperlonga). By Sailko – Own work, CC BY 3.0.

The most famous feature of the emperor’s dining room decorative scheme were the Sperlonga sculptures. These sculptures, in the ‘Baroque’ Hellenistic style but believed to date to the early imperial period, depict scenes from Homeric mythology. Perhaps the most iconic statuary group from Sperlonga, the Blinding of Polyphemus, shows the hero Odysseus and his trapped men driving a red hot spear into the eye of the cyclops Polyphemus.

The Blinding of Polyphemus, cast reconstruction of the group, Sperlonga. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

It was not merely the artworks here that offered drama. In AD 26 the grotto collapsed, almost crushing the emperor to death. The historians Tacitus (Annals, 4.59) and Suetonius (Tiberius, 39) both provide narratives of this imperial near-miss. According to Tacitus, the emperor’s life was actually saved by the courage of Sejanus, who would go on to wield terrible influence over him. Similarly, not all who were present in the grotto were fortunate enough to escape unscathed; several died.

Sperlonga ruins of the Tiberius villa. By steveilott – Flickr: Sperlonga, CC BY 2.0.

Visitors to Sperlonga today are presented with the opportunity to explore the wealth of this former imperial residence thanks to the museum that now occupies the site of the former villa. Within the museum there are, of course, the remains of the statuary groups. Naturally, the statues suffered significant damage during the collapse of the grotto in antiquity, so elements are missing in places. Nevertheless, they remain inescapably dramatic and a must-see for those interested in ancient art and mythology.

3. Minturnae

Situated in southern Lazio, straddling the Liris river on the coast between Rome and Naples, the town of Minturnae (now, Minturno) was a prominent ancient settlement on the ancient Via Appia. The site was originally settled by the Ausones, a native people who inhabited the central and southern regions of the Italian peninsula. During the last decade of the 4^th century BC, the site came under the influence of Rome. First described by Livy (ad Urba Condita, 8.10), it was captured by the Romans in 313 BC after a particularly violent confrontation, and a mere two years later it was connected to the nascent imperial capital by the Via Appia. By the year 296/5, a full Roman colony had been established here.

Overview of Minturnae, Minturno, Italy. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

The colony grew in stature and significance, and archaeological evidence indicates that it underwent a process of fortification that coincided with the Second Punic War in the late 2^nd century; it appears a great tufa wall was built around the site to protect it from Hannibal’s armies. The city appears to have remained prominent throughout the imperial period but lacking political importance. It developed over the course of the imperial period, with Augustus and Tiberius settling additional veterans here, whilst the emperors were also responsible for furnishing the city with several of its most notable monuments, the remains of which continue to be impressive to this day.

DID YOU KNOW?: According to the ancient biographer Plutarch, the Republican general Marius had a lucky escape from the agents of Sulla at Minturnae. In his Life of Marius 37-40, there is a description of the hero’s flight, naked through the muddy marshes nearby, his plight in the town which condemned him to death, and his eventual escape to the island of Aenaria.

The remains of antiquity at Minturnae testify to a wealthy and prominent ancient settlement. Today, visitors can explore an excellently preserved theatre, which once would have seated around 4,600 spectators. Intriguingly, the northern wall of the ancient Forum of Minturnae appears to have served as the scaena of the theatre, whilst it archaeologists have discovered that the cavea – the seating area – was built seemingly atop the defensive walls built to confront the Hannibalic threat. The substantial remains of an aqueduct from the 1^st century, with its distinctive opus reticulatum brickwork, are also impressive.

The Roman theatre, view on the temples and Republican & Imperial forums. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

4. Tauromenium

In the east of the island of Sicily, the ancient settlement of Tauromenium (Taormina) – situated between Messana to the north and Catana to the south – predates the arrival of the Greek colonists to the island. Greek colonists arrived on the island in the latter decades of the 8^th century BC, establishing a city named Naxos; it is believed that Tauromenium was founded by colonists from his city, as is described by the 1^st century AD geographer Strabo.

Unlike other Greek colonies on Sicily, Tauromenium was notable for the good governance it reputedly enjoyed. Andromachus, who was the father of the historian Timaeus (whose work has survived only in fragments unfortunately), was notable for the clemency and good governance of his rule. Andromachus is known to have welcomed Timoleon into the city when he arrived on the island in the mid-4^th century BC (ca. 345). This proved to be a sensible choice by Andromachus; after Timoleon had expelled the other tyrants from Sicily, the ruler of Tauromenium was allowed to retain his authority, which he did until his death.

Passing into Roman control with the subjugation of the island, a suggestion gleaned from Appian, Sicily and the Other Islands, 5 is that the town submitted readily on favourable terms to the Roman general Marcus Marcellus. Accordingly, it enjoyed a favoured status in Roman politics. It enjoyed the privileges of a civitas foederata – an allied city. This meant that it enjoyed a degree of independence and escaped the burden of furnishing the fledging Empire with ships when obliged (the fate of Messina for instance). Nevertheless, the city suffered extensively during the Sicilian Servile War (134-132 BC), when it endured a lengthy siege. The city remained sizable though largely unimportant during the imperial period.

DID YOU KNOW?: During the imperial period, Tauromenium became famous for the quality of its produce. Pliny the Elder reports on the quality of its wines (Natural History, 14.6.8), whilst the satirist poet Juvenal, writing in the late 1^st century AD records that that coastal waters at Tauromenium offered up some of the choicest mullets for the dinner tables of Roman elites. The late 2^nd century rhetorician Athenaeus similarly records that the city was valued for a particular type of marble. Tauremenium evidently enjoyed a long-standing reputation as a place for life’s fineries!

The city played a prominent role in the wars of Sextus Pompeius, the son and heir of Pompey the Great and adversary of Octavian as he sought to cement his rule over the Roman world. The strength of the city’s fortifications prompted the renegade admiral to make this one of his main defensive locations. It was also one of the sights when the future emperor took to the field himself; in a naval engagement here Octavian and Sextus engaged in a battle that resulted in the almost total annihilation of the latter’s forces. Following his defeat, Octavian nominated Tauromenium as one of the cities to receive a Roman colony, a clear precautionary tactic.

Sextus Pompeius. Aureus, struck in Sicily 37-36. Obv: Bearded and bare head of Sextus Pompeius. Rev: Heads of Cn. Pompeius Magnus on l., and Cn. Pompeius Junior on r., facing each other. Numismatica Ars Classica Auction 99. Picture used by permission of NAC.

Today, the ancient city of Tauromenium has been incorporated into the modern town of Taormina. Scattered remains of antiquity are present all over the site. The most prominent site remains the ancient theatre. The remains of this structure are mostly brick-built, indicating that they are Roman in date. However, the plan and arrangement are Greek in style, meaning that it is highly likely that the structure standing today was built atop the remains of a much older theatre complex. The theatre is actually the second largest of any in Sicily, further indicating that Tauromenium remained a site associated with luxury and good living in the imperial period.

The ‘Teatro Greco’ at Tauromenium. The Roman-era brick work is identifiable here in the scaena frons, whilst the Sicilian vista beyond is beautiful. In the background, the slopes of Mt Etna are visible.

Greek Theater – Taormina. Looking toward the south over Gardini-Naxox. By Evan Erickson – Own work, Public Domain.

5. Amiternum

Located in the Province of Abruzzo in the east of the Italian peninsula, the site of Amiternum was once a thriving Sabine city. Its location at the head of the upper Aterno valley meant that it was one of the most important cities in Sabinium. Although details of its Sabine history are hazy at best, it was obviously well known in Roman antiquity. Virgil, in his Aeneid, described it as one of the most powerful Sabine cities (7.710), whilst it is also referred to in the works of Varro (Lingua Latina, 5.28), Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 3.12) and the geographer Ptolemy (3.1.59).

Amiternum amphitheater. By Ra Boe / Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0 de.

The city fell under Roman control in 293 BC, and it appears to have occupied a strategically significant location. It was once situated at the junction of four of the most important Roman roads: the Via Caecillia, the Via Claudia Nova, and two branches of the Via Salaria. It should thus come as no surprise that the city was involved in the wars of the Roman Republic, and indeed, the 1^st century geographer Strabo records the city as having suffered severe damage during both the Social and Civil Wars throughout the 1^st century BC. This appears to have taken its toll on the city, as the geographer suggests that it was still reeling from these damages during his own period. However, it evidently recovered. It was colonised, likely at the behest of Augustus, and grew once more in significance.

DID YOU KNOW? Amiternum was the birthplace of the Roman historian Sallust. Born in 86 BC, Sallust wrote histories that covered some of the most turbulent and important events of the 1^st century BC as the Republic gradually splintered. These include The Jugurthine War, detailing Rome’s war against the Numidian King, Jugurtha, from 111 to 105 BC, and Catiline’s War, which provides the narrative of Catiline’s attempted conspiracy in 63 BC.

The remains of ancient Amiternum that are still visible attest to the significance of the city. The most impressive of these are the remains of the amphitheatre and theatre, both structures dating to the imperial period. Above these colossal edifices of Roman culture, on the hill where the village of San Vittorino now stands, there are also some walls that are believed to date to the earliest periods of Amiternum’s history, the site’s Sabine past. Here, there are also a number of early Christian catacombs.

Picture below: the 1st century BC Amiternum tomb shows the funerary procession of a former resident of the ancient city. The deceased, the central reclining figure, is mourned by his wife and children to the left, whilst trumpet and horn players to the right announce the funerary procession, the pompa.

Plate with a funerary procession, now in Museo nazionale d’Abruzzo. By Sailko – Own work, CC BY 3.0.

Excavations of the site of Amiternum have returned a wealth of smaller finds. Many of these pieces are now displayed in the archaeological museum of nearby Aquila. The most impressive find remains the Amiternum Tomb. This 1^st century BC sarcophagus is known for its celebrated relief decoration that shows the Roman funerary procession – the pompa – that was so evocatively described by Polybius (History, 6.53-4).

The top 5  of Southern Italy on TimeTravelRome

The TimeTravelRome mobile app features all 5 ancint sites descried above, and alse thousands of other Roman sites and monuments in Italy, Europe, Asia and Northern Africa.

Header image: Santa Maria Capua Vetere. Anfiteatro. By Miguel Hermoso Cuesta – Own work,CC BY-SA 4.0.

No archeological tour of Italy would be complete without a visit to Tibur, modern Tivoli. The city has a long history, dating back to the 13^th century B.C., when colonists from Alba Longa settled on the site. Tibur held a tumultuous relationship with Rome before it fell to its southern neighbors. Rome granted citizenship to Tibur in 90 B.C., after which the city became a favorite for wealthy Romans. Its streets housed luxurious villas for many famous individuals, including the poet Horace, and possibly Catullus and Statius as well, Maecenas, Emperor Augustus, and Zenobia of Palmyra, among others.

However, the most famous villa at Tibur belonged to the Emperor Hadrian. His sprawling residence was built to house any number of politicians and so continue the business of state outside of Rome, as well as being a private getaway for the emperor, who, despite his public charisma, remained something of a recluse. Today, Tibur houses a number of magnificent archaeological structures, including segments of Hadrian’s spectacular 200 acre villa, of which only a portion has been excavated.

Founding Myths

Despite the relatively mundane official history of Tibur, the Romans, of course, enjoyed a more colorful version. According to Cato the Elder, Catillus the Arcadian, son of Amphiaraus founded the city. Amphiaraus had been a highly honored seer and king of Argos. The legends tell of a fateful attack on Thebes, immortalized by Aeschylus in 467 B.C. in his tragic play “Seven Against Thebes.” Upon learning of his terrible patricide and marriage to his mother, the infamous Oedipus blinded himself and cursed his two sons, dooming them to divide the kingdom through violence. The sons, Eteocles and Polynices, attempted to subvert the curse by agreeing to take turns ruling Thebes. However, after his first year of rule, Eteocles refused to hand the throne to his brother.

Scene from The Seven against Thebes by Aeschylus. By Caivano Painter – Wolfgang Sauber (User:Xenophon), own work, 2008-04-10. Image renamed from Image:7 gegen Theben.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Polynices subsequently went to Argos. He bribed the wife of Amphiaraus, Eriphyle, with a necklace that had belonged to the daughter of Aphrodite. In exchange, she convinced her husband to join Polynices’ campaign against his brother. Despite knowing that the attack would fail, Amphiaraus fought bravely, but was eventually slaughtered along with the others. The Tiburtines believed that Amphiaraus had a son named Catillus who had accompanied him to Thebes. Catillus managed to escape the slaughter, and fled to Italy, where he established the colony of Tibur.

Conflict with Rome

During Etruscan times, Tibur was a Sabine city. Though initially friendly with Rome, in 361 B.C., the city allied itself with the invading Gauls. After the Romans defeated the Gallic invaders before the Colline Gate of Rome, the Gauls fled past Tibur. As they did so, some Tiburtines came out to watch, and pursuing Romans killed them as they passed. Because of this, consul Caius Poetilius Balbus celebrated a triumph over both the Gauls and the Tiburtines. The Tiburtines merely laughed at his triumph, asking when he had ever faced them in open battle.

Details of the antique walls of the city of Tivoli dating from the 4th century BC. By LPLT – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Accordingly, soon after, a group of Tiburtines marched on Rome, but they had been hoping for a surprise attack. The Romans were alerted, and soon attacked, driving the Tiburtines to flight. In the campaign that followed, Rome soundly defeated Tibur, and took several cities from them before the two cities negotiated a truce. In 338 B.C., Tibur officially became a part of Roman territory. Sections of the city’s defensive walls from this era remain in modern Tivoli.

Prophecy of the Tiburtine Sibyl

One of Tibur’s most famous individuals was the Tiburtine Sibyl, a respected oracle who contributed to the Sibylline Oracles of Rome. Ruins of her temple exist to this day. Ancient writers told of her encounter with Augustus, where he asked her if he should be worshipped as a god. Later Christian writers particularly enjoyed recounting this tale, and added that in reply she told him of a vision of Mary with the infant Jesus, sitting in prominence in the city of Rome.

General view of the temple of Vesta (left) and the temple of Sibyl (right) in Tivoli. By LPLT – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

The most famous piece by the Tiburtine Sibyl was her graphic and detailed prophecy of the end of days. It was a bestseller, and a number of scholars re-copied it throughout the medieval era, with probable errors and misinterpretations. However, it appears that the prophecy came to the sibyl as dream. In it, she saw nine suns in the sky, which represented nine generations of mankind. Each sun appeared more ugly and bloodstained than the one before it, and following the last sun came judgment day.

What to See Here?

Few places in the world are able to capture the extravagant and monumental extremes of Roman luxury like Tivoli. The area is simply bursting with magnificent sites. The most famous is without doubt Hadrian’s Villa, built in the first couple of decades of the second century AD. By 128 AD, it seems the 250-acre villa complex had become Hadrian’s official residence, connected to the capital via an efficient postal network and able to accommodate any number of emissaries or guests an emperor might have to entertain. Much of the villa remains unexcavated, but what is visible is truly magnificent. The remains of the Island Villa capture what was most likely the most beautiful pat of the emperor’s grand design, while the vast complex of baths, fountains, statues and even a theatre pay testament to the imperial scale of the project.

Tivoli – Wall of the Poikile of Hadrian’s Villa. By Patrik Kunec – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

As well as Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli is also home to the Temple of Vesta. Idyllically situated atop the ancient acropolis in Tivoli’s countryside, this circular temple dates to the first century BC. As is visible from an inscription on the temple’s architrave, one Lucius Gellius is to be credited either for constructing or restoring the temple. In its near vicinity lies another rectangular temple, often attributed to the Tiburtine Sibyl, while just outside the boundary of the ancient city lie the ruins of the expansive Sanctuary of Hercules the Winner (dating from the second century BC) and Temple of the Tosse (probably dating to the fourth century AD).

The Canopus, Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli. By Carole Raddato from FRANKFURT, Germany. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Tivoli in the Timetravlerome app

Tivoli and Hadrian’s villa are covered in the Timetravelrome app: all main monuments in the Hadrian’s villa are mapped and described.

Sources: Cato the Elder, Origines – quoted by Gaius Julius Solinus; Livy, History of Rome; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian.

Header image: PanoramaMaritimeTheater, photo by DerPaul – Own work, licensed under CC BY 3.0

– Plato, Republic

A note from Marian Vermeulen (author):

I am a longtime lover of Marcus Aurelius. His picture is on the wall next to my desk with several of my favorite individuals from history and a copy of his Meditations lives in my bedside table. Having majored in history and philosophy in university, I have done several research projects focused on him and I am fascinated by his attempt to embody the concept of the ideal philosopher king, as well as finding that his personal stoic philosophy resonates deeply with my desires for my own life.

I’ve noticed in circles of Roman history lovers that there is a trend for folks to be dismissive of the idea of discussing Marcus Aurelius. The argument often hinges on the fact that people only like him because of seeing the movie Gladiator. I can understand why they might be frustrated with that kind of superficial excitement and interest, but I would argue that it makes it even more imperative to dive into the actual history. If all people know is a clip from a movie, or a brief overview done over and over again on a popular topic, how much more important is it to actually investigate? I hope, therefore, that you will join me in a short series that will dig into the details of the life of one of Rome’s great emperors.

Childhood on the Caelian

Marcus Aurelius was born Marcus Annius Verus on April 26^th, 121 A.D. into a family of considerable status. His father was a high ranking Senator and his mother the heiress of a profitable brick factory. The family lived on the Caelian Hill of Rome, which housed many wealthy and elite Romans. Yet in 124 A.D., Marcus’s father died unexpectedly, leaving his widow with a three year old son and infant daughter, Marcus’s sister Annia Cornificia Faustina.

Luckily they had a loving family, and were taken in by Marcus’s paternal grandfather, whom Marcus later praised for his “courtesy and serenity of temper.” His maternal great-grandfather, Lucius Catilius Severus, also took a keen interest in the boy’s education and upbringing, to the extent that Marcus later added “Catilius Severus” to his name. Both of these prominent men were regulars in the imperial inner circle, Lucius in particular was a close friend of Emperor Hadrian. When Hadrian returned from one of his many tours of the empire, Lucius came to call, bringing with him his now four year old great-grandson.

Hadrian quickly developed a fondness for the “solemn child,” and spent many hours with him, often literally in his lap. His nickname for the boy was Verissimus, or “most truthful.” It was derived from Marcus’s cognomen, Verus, and also referenced the boy’s serious devotion to honesty, even as a toddler. Eager to help his new protégé, Hadrian enrolled Marcus in the equestrian order when the boy was only six, and at seven he named him to the priestly college of the Salii. As the group usually chose its own members, an imperial appointment was a mark of high favor. 

A Philosophical Youth

Hadrian soon left on another tour, this time to Africa, but Marcus was already set on a path to success. He began his studies and quite enjoyed them, learning oration, literature, drama, music, geometry, grammar, and more. His favorite topic, however, was philosophy. He was instructed by a renowned stoic, Apollonius, who he described as “living proof that the fieriest energy is not incompatible with the ability to relax.” As early as age twelve, Marcus had committed himself to pursuit of stoicism. He began to dress in the simple style of Greek philosophers, and insisted that he should sleep on the floor as they did. His mother absolutely refused. Eventually they settled on a compromise, and Marcus exchanged his bed for a simple pallet covered with animal skins.

Hadrian returned when his Verissimus was thirteen years old. He was a kind, pleasant boy, though also very serious and focused, and Hadrian was just as pleased with him as before. When Marcus turned fifteen and received the toga virilis, marking him an adult, Hadrian appointed him prefect of the city during the Latin Festival, an ancient ceremony where the elder of the city processed out to sacrifice on the Alban Mount. Marcus was the honorary protector of the city while they were away, and apparently “he conducted himself very brilliantly both in the presence of the magistrates and at the banquets of the Emperor Hadrian.”

Heir to the Empire

Though Marcus enjoyed the same pursuits as other young men, and was skilled at boxing, wrestling, running, hunting, and ball games, “his ardour for philosophy distracted him from all these pursuits and made him serious and dignified. But, not ruining, however, a certain geniality in him.” He proved his devotion to the simple life of a stoic in his actions too. When he was seventeen, his paternal grandfather died, and his mother came to him to ask if he might leave some portion of his inheritance to his sister. Marcus replied that he was more than content with the estate that his maternal grandfather had left him, and he not only signed over the entire new inheritance to his sister, he also told his mother that she could leave her fortune to his sister as well.

Meanwhile, Hadrian’s health had been slowly fading, and he was desperate to find an heir. He clearly wanted it to be Marcus, but his favorite was still too young for the position. Hadrian resolved to find a placeholder, an older statesman to hold the position until Marcus could take over. His first choice was Ceionius Commodus, and Hadrian insisted that Commodus adopt Marcus and betroth him to his own daughter, Ceionia Fabia. Commodus fit the role of temporary heir rather too well, however, for he died only about a year later, leaving Hadrian again without an heir. His next choice was Senator Arrius Antoninus, a man of significant wealth, influence, and character. Antoninus accepted the position, and also dutifully fulfilled the role of son to his new adopted father, remaining by Hadrian’s side as the dying emperor battled a painful and debilitating illness.  

Emperor Antoninus Pius

Antoninus’s loyalty remained steadfast after Hadrian’s death, and earned him the title “Pius” from the Senate. Hadrian had maintained a shaky relationship with the Senate, and initially the governing body did not want to vote him divinity. Antoninus vehemently insisted, and finally gave them an ultimatum; he would refuse to be emperor if they did not grant Hadrian the expected posthumous honors. The Senate begrudgingly relented. Antoninus promptly adopted both Marcus and also the young son of Ceionius Commodus, Lucius.

Marcus, however, was utterly appalled to be adopted into the imperial family, and had to be pressured into taking up residence at the royal palace. He was convinced that the position would hinder his pursuit of stoicism and righteous living, and when “the members of his household asked him why he was sorry to receive royal adoption, he enumerated to them the evil things that sovereignty involved.” Eventually he managed to make peace with the change, helped, no doubt, by the genuine respect, loyalty and deep affection that grew between Marcus and his adopted father, Antoninus Pius.

What to See Here?

The Caelian Hill’s main ancient site is the Baths of Caracalla, an enormous third century complex of which the main block alone sprawled more than 25,000 metres. Regrettably little of the villas survive that were built under it. Also worth visiting for the thirteenth century BC obelisk that stands within its surrounding parkland is Villa Celimontana.  The villa stands on the peak of the Caelian while its grounds stretch on between the valley of the Aventine and the Caelian. Nothing remains of the Temple of Hercules Victor, which Corinth’s destroyer Lucius Mummius erected on the hill between 146 and 142 BC near where the Church of Santi Quattro Coronati now stands. Visit the Vatican Museums, however, and you can find the temple’s original dedicatory inscription.

Caelian Hill on Timetravelrome App:

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Sources: Cassius Dio, Roman History; Marcus Aurelius, Meditations; Sextus Aurelius Victor, Epitome De Caesaribus; Historia Augusta, The Life of Antoninus Pius.

Header image: Baths of Caracalla, photo by Ethan Doyle White, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

As a part of the Empire for over 350 years, from annexation by the emperor Claudius in 43 AD to the full Roman retreat in 410, Britain today is scattered with remains of its ancient, Classical past. For a long time, the island was ignored: although Julius Caesar is known to have landed here as early as around 55 BC, no Roman would land here again for almost a century. Indeed, Tacitus suggests that the island was neglected as a matter of policy by the earliest emperors, including Augustus and Tiberius! (Tacitus, Agricola, 13).

Despite being on the very edges of the Empire, and home to a native population that the earliest writers dismiss of as simple barbarians, the island quickly took on many of the social and cultural characteristics of Roman life following the Roman conquest. Rebellions would occur over the centuries, most notably those of Boudicca in 60 AD and Carausius in the late 3^rd century, but, for the most part, Britain became a flourishing province of the Empire, and was bedecked in recognisably Roman fineries, often with a distinctly native flourish.

For the modern explorer, the remains of Rome – whether that be baths, amphitheatres, legionary fortresses or roads – can be seen all over Britain. Here are 5 of the best:  

5/ Viroconium

Situated close to the northern Welsh border, in the town of Wroxeter in Shropshire, the town of Virconium stands as an excellent reminder of how pervasive Roman culture was within the imperial provinces. Even in the far north of the Empire, many of the identifying features typically associated with Roman urban culture can be seen replicated in these decidedly British contexts.

Originally the home of the Cornovii Celts, who made their home on the iron-age hillfort on the Wrekin (the Uiroconion), the town of Viroconium was originally settled as a frontier settlement in the earliest years of the Roman conquest. Occupying a strategic location, at the end of Watling Street which ran from Dover, the site provided the Romans with a base of security from which to consolidate their control in the north.

By as early as 80 AD however, the military were no longer required here: from this point onwards, the story of Viroconium is the story of the growth of a truly Roman settlement. It quickly acquired the trappings of Roman urbanism, including a forum, a grid-street pattern, temples, and, of course, thermae (a bath house). Many of these are date to the period of expansion between 120 – 130 AD; indeed during the reign of Hadrian, in the Golden Age of the 2^nd century AD, the town is estimated to have grown to around 173 acres and to have been one of the richest and largest cities in the northern empire, and certainly within Britain.

Today, the remains of the thermae – known locally as “the Old Work” are an impressive sight to behold. The surviving features of the frigidarium (the cold room), along with the hypocaust heating system, the structural features comprise the largest free-standing Roman ruins in England.

4/ Vindolanda Fort – Frontier Life

Located just to the south of Hadrian’s Wall in the north of Britain, near Bardon Mill in Northumberland, the auxiliary fort of Vindolanda is a priceless window into life in the Roman Empire that is arguably without parallel in the northern provinces. In use from around 85 AD through to the dying embers of Roman rule in the late 4^th century (ca.380 AD), the fort is famous for the recovery of the Vindolanda tablets. These wooden leaf tablets, which document magically day to day life in a frontier fort, are some of the oldest examples of handwritten documents in Britain.

Predating Hadrian’s Wall, Vindolanda would once have been a key part of the original imperial frontier (the Stanegate Road). Over the course of its 3 centuries of use, the fort was demolished and rebuilt no fewer than 9 times, evolving from a simple wooden encampment into the imposing stone fortification you will be able to explore today, which appears to have been developed extensively during the campaigns of Septimius Severus in the north of Britain in 208-211.

Although the remains of the fortress’ structures are well preserved and worth exploring, the real draw of Vindolanda is the truly excellent museum – Chesterholm Museum – on site. As Vindolanda remains an active archaeological site, the museum is constantly being updated with new discoveries. It is definitely recommended that visitors take their time to explore the museum and its grounds, as there are treasures everywhere. From a full-sized reconstruction of a Roman Temple in the grounds, there are truly priceless and unique remains of daily life in Roman Britain to be found within.

Until as late as 2011, one would have to travel to the British Museum in London to see the tablets, but now a selection are on display here. These delicate wooden tablets with their wispy ink writing miraculously and are true postcards from the past. Their subject matter varies massively. Some are strictly official, detailing administrative requests from the soldiers stationed here. Others though are wonderfully private. The most famous of these is probably Tablet 291, which records the invitation to a birthday party made by Claudia Severa, the wife of a nearby camp commander, to Sulpicia Lepidina!

3/ Fishbourne Palace – A Villa fit for a King?

Situated in Chichester, West Sussex, on the south coast of England, this sprawling villa, dating to around 75 AD, is the largest residential Roman building ever discovered in Britain, and is in fact the largest north of the Alps. Much of the palace has been well excavated and is today part of an excellent heritage site, which includes an on-site museum. The exquisite and very-well preserved mosaics that have been recovered from the site should be high on any Roman Britain must-see lists.

The palace’s original excavator, archaeologist Barry Cunliffe, suggested that this was once the home of Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus (King Cogidubnus to those of you who studied the Cambridge Latin Course!), a local pre-Roman chieftain, who thanks to his support for the invaders, was installed as a client king over several southern territories. Other interpretations argue instead that the palatial complex was owned by Sallustius Lucullus, a late 1^st century governor who would fall fatally foul of the emperor Domitian’s paranoia in 93 AD.

Whoever the actual owner was, what is striking is how quickly after the initial conquest the forms and features of a recognisably Roman culture took hold in Britain and began to be ostentatiously displayed. In size, it is roughly equivalent to Nero’s Domus Aurea, or Golden House, which sprawled across the hills to the east of the city and was a viewed as a sure sign of his tyranny. Just as strikingly, in terms of floor plan, the organisation of Fishbourne Palace closely resembles that of the Domus Flavia, another tyrant’s palace, this time that belonging to Domitian on the Palatine Hill. In its size and organisation mirroring the imperial palaces in Rome, as well as the opulence of its interior decoration, Fishbourne Palace makes a mockery of any notion that Britain was a provincial backwater for the ancient Romans. Indeed, arguably nowhere else does the assessment of Tacitus ring quite so true:

“A liking sprang up for our style of dress, and the “toga” became fashionable. Step by step they were led to things which dispose to vice, the lounge, the bath, the elegant banquet. All this in their ignorance, they called civilisation, when it was but a part of their servitude.” (Tacitus, Agr.. 21)

2/ Hadrian’s Wall – The edges of Empire

This vast defensive wall in the north of Britain are perhaps the most iconic of the Roman remains in Britain. The construction of this vast defensive frontier was begun in 122 AD under the auspices of the Emperor Hadrian, who is well known for visiting the extremities of Empire and setting its geographic limits. The wall in Britain stretched from the River Tyne in the East to the Solway Firth on the Irish Sea in the West. A significant stretch of the wall is still standing today, running for a total of 73 miles across the north of England.

The exact purpose for building the wall remains contested, but it seems clear that it served as an imposing statement of Roman strength. Hadrian’s biographer in the none-too-dependable Historia Augusta, suggests that it was built to separate Rome from the barbarians – the Picts – to the north. (SHA, Hadr., 11.2). This seems to have been part of a broader policy of the emperor: similar defensive fortifications were built around the edges of the empire, notably in North Africa for instance.

Visitors to the wall today are spoilt for choice with how best to explore the remains. English Heritage offer a number of different visitor trails for you to walk along and follow the course of the wall amidst the spectacular scenery. The wall was punctuated by fortifications, and the best preserved of these today can still be seen and explored with several – notably Housesteads and Birdoswald – doubling as excellent visitor centres and museums with material from the soldiers who once called these far-flung defences home.

1/ Aquae Sulis – Gods and Curses in a Georgian Heritage Site

No trip to explore Roman Britain could possibly be completed without exploring the ancient thermal complex of Aquae Sulis in the city of Bath in southern England. The archaeological site in the heart of the gorgeous Georgian city is exceptionally well-preserved and includes the remains of a Roman Temple, the Roman Bath House and Sacred Spring, and an excellent museum which houses material from the site.

Development of the site by the Romans appears to have begun almost as soon as the initial conquest of the island was complete, some time in the early 60’s AD. However, there is evidence to suggest that site of the baths, with its thermal hot spring, had been used as a sacred space by the native Celtic peoples long before Roman conquest. Indeed, for the indigenous people, the springs were dedicated to the goddess Sulis. Ever open to incorporating native deities into their own diverse pantheon and worshipping them around the Empire, the Romans associated Sulis with Minerva, and duly developed the site around Roman architectural forms. Indeed, the Latin name for the town – Aquae Sulis – means “Waters of Sulis”.

Within the museum at the site, one can see a plethora of defixiones, or lead curse tablets. These were dedicated to Sulis Minerva and tossed into the sacred waters. They offer wonderful insights into the lives of the ancients, as they asked the goddess for revenge on those whom they felt had wronged them in their day-to-day life.

What to See There Now ?

Timetravelrome describes and locates on the map all 5 sites described above. Find out more about these and thousands of other sites: www.timetravelrome.com

Aquae Sulis (Bath) on Timetravelrome App:

Author: Kieren Johns for Timetravelrome

Links to additional content: Viroconium, Vindolanda fort, Fishbourne Palace, Hadrian’s Wall, Aquae Sulis.

Header image: Aquae Sulis, By Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0,

Nerva

Some modern historians think of Nerva as a weak and hesitant committee man. In reality, he was clearly clever and shrewd; simply wise enough to seek the counsel of others. He navigated the political quagmire of Rome and enjoyed a successful career while remaining close to six successive emperors during chaos and civil war. He is the only person besides Vespasian’s own son Titus to serve as the Emperor’s co-consul. When conspirators in the Senate planned Domitian’s murder, they had already chosen Nerva as his successor. 

A proven statesman, Nerva re-built the trust of both the people and the Senate and forestalled another civil war. He was well into his sixties, often ill, and physically weak, with no natural children; a perfect placeholder.  The army and the Praetorian Guard were the only unpredictable factions. Nerva’s choice of successor, the shrewd and highly popular general Trajan, ensured full support. He only reigned for fifteen months, but managed to institute popular policies and launch important building programs.  He was remembered fondly by his contemporaries. 

What Site is most closely related with Nerva? We think it is the eponymous Forum in Rome. Often disregarded by tourists, the Forum of Nerva was the fourth and smallest of the imperial fora, but it still reminds us of the legacy of the first of the “good” Emperors of Rome. 

Trajan

Trajan was a perfect Emperor to follow Nerva. He was the ideal Roman; ambitious, skilled in politics and military strategy, restlessly expansionist, yet also kind and fair. Trajan was equally an emperor and a general. He led his armies on the battlefield, and the Empire reached the height of its size during his rule. His soldiers adored him. He would spend the first hours after a battle visiting with the wounded among his men. During one such visit, the army medics ran out of bandages. Trajan immediately cut up his own clothing into strips and offered it to them to dress the soldier’s wounds.

He was equally tactful in his administrative work. He maintained a high level of respect for the Senate and for the old customs of the Republic. The people praised his work to fix the crumbling Roman roads and public buildings. His many social and economic reforms were equally popular. One of these was among the first public welfare programs in history, designed to aid poor and orphaned children. He did all of this without exploiting Roman citizens or provincials. Every ancient source compliments Trajan. He was just, brave, humble, mild, generous, hard-working, trusting, and fiercely loyal. When his cousin died, Trajan adopted the man’s children, Hadrian and Paulina, and he later named Hadrian his heir.

What Site is most related with Trajan? An excellent choice would be Trajan’s Column, constructed in 113 A.D. and commemorating his victories in Dacia. Curiously it served as archetype for later rulers – for Marcus Aurelius and also for Napoleon, who used Trajan’s Column as a template for the depiction of his own military achievements, represented by the Vendôme Column that stands in Paris.

Hadrian

Coming after Trajan, Hadrian’s complex personality often confused his contemporaries. He frequently ran contrary to Roman ideals, preferring defensive strategy to imperialism and expansion. Early in his reign, he earned the suspicion of the Senate, and he was never able to escape that.  He was generally friendly and kind, treating people with respect and even visiting ill friends personally. Yet, unlike the firm loyalty of Trajan, several times he suddenly dropped formerly favored friends for no obvious reason. He was confident almost to the point of arrogance in his many interests and hobbies, intelligent, decisive, and charismatic. Yet he never displayed the fragile ego of many other Emperors, who would lash out viciously against critics. 

Once a woman approached him, and he brushed her off impatiently, saying he had no time for her. She shot back, “well, stop being emperor, then!” Where many might have had the woman punished for insolence, Hadrian humbly took the barb to heart. He stopped to allow her an audience.  Despite his brash and assured public face, Hadrian maintained a deep need for seclusion. His private rooms at his villa sat on a small island in the middle of a pond, accessible only by rowboat. Despite his contemporaries’ doubts, the Empire prospered under Hadrian, and he deserves his place among the five great emperors. Today, he is best remembered for the ruins of the ancient wall in England that bears his name.

What Site is most representative of Hadrian’s rule?  We suggest it could be the Hadrian’s Wall in northern England. It ran from the North Sea to the Irish Sea with a fort every five Roman miles. The Wall effectively reflects Hadrian’s time: splendor and magnificence in Rome, but tempered by the emerging existential threat on the frontiers of the Empire.

Antoninus Pius

Chosen mainly as a placeholder, Antoninus Pius was already middle-aged when Hadrian picked him as his successor. Hadrian’s favorite was still too young, and the Emperor was growing ever sicker. He appointed Antoninus his successor, if he would adopt Marcus and another boy, Lucius Verus, next, as joint heirs. Antoninus stayed strongly loyalty to Hadrian, remaining by his side to the very end.  He then stood up to the Senate when they refused to deify Hadrian just after the Emperor’s death. Antoninus threatened to resign, and they finally agreed.

He was a beloved ruler, never much for war, instead holding a deep regard for life. His character was flawless. He refused any bribes, and met all problems brought to him with the same focus. The status of the suppliant did not matter. He was humble, cheerful, prudent, wise, and had a soft heart. Antoninus and Marcus loved one another dearly. Marcus began to rule jointly with his adopted father toward the end of his life. 

What Site is most closely related with Antoninus Pius? It is probably the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in Rome.  The temple was initially dedicated only to Antoninus’s deceased wife, Faustina the Elder. When the Emperor was deified by the Senate after his own death, the temple was re-dedicated to both himself and his wife. Antoninus and Faustina are believed to have enjoyed a happy marriage and the Temple still reminds us of their happy union. 

Marcus Aurelius

Perhaps the greatest ruler of all time, Marcus Aurelius did not even want to become emperor. Serious and smart, he had devoted himself to Stoic philosophy from a young age. When told he was to be the adopted heir, he was furious, but eventually agreed. He ruled as co-emperor with his adopted brother Lucius Verus, until the latter died while on campaign. No other emperor is praised as highly as Marcus Aurelius. Cassius Dio named him the best Emperor in the history of Rome. He was pleasant, deeply kind-hearted, and hated violence. During his rule, he would not even allow gladiators to fight with real weapons. Though frugal, he was still generous to his subjects, forgiving, and also very respectful of the Senate. 

He was the perfect philosopher king. His only failure was that he produced a natural son. The Five Great Emperors had all been chosen deliberately for their abilities and character, and adopted to ensure succession. Upon Marcus Aurelius’s death, his vicious son Commodus became emperor. Cassius Dio says that it degraded Rome “from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust.” 

What Site would we associate with Marcus Aurelius? Perhaps the most well-known is his famous Column in Rome, completed in 193 A.D. It was made of Carrara marble and dedicated to his victories over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes. Marcus Aurelius is seen as the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of peace and prosperity for the Empire. His Stoic philosophy, which can be read in his personal journal, now published as Meditations, have been praised for centuries.

We have proposed our ideas of the iconic sites that most represent the five “Good Emperors” of ancient Rome. Do you have other ideas? Share your thoughts with us! 

Sources: Cassius Dio, Roman History ; Sextus Aurelius Victor, Epitome De Caesaribus ; Marcus Aurelius, Meditations ; Historia Augusta

Photo: Hadrian Column by djedj is licensed under  CC0