The Roman Villa of Casignana is located in the province of Reggio Calabria. The original structure dates back to the 1st century AD and its most significant phase is represented by a major renovation that took place in the 4th century. It was later abandoned in the 5th, but traces of frequentation are visible up to the 7th century.

Location of the Villa Casignana on the sea coast of Calabria. Link to the source: www.locriantica.it

The Maritime Villa

The villa stood on the ancient road connecting Locri Epizefiri and Rhegion (Reggio Calabria). Due to this location on the road, it was initially thought that the Villa was connected to a statio, or that a statio had developed into a villa. However, the discovery in the 90’s of a residential sector with a facade open to the sea and connected to the thermal baths by a large peristyle have proven that the complex represents a residential-type maritime villa, belonging to an extremely wealthy owner.

Due to its richness, the quality and the state of conservation of the structures, the Villa of Casignana  is one of the most important Roman archaeological complexes in southern Italy.

View on the archaeological site. By Marcuscalabresus – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

The History of the Discovery

The first documentation of the Villa’ remains are dating back to 1873 – the discovery was made on the occasion of the construction of the railway line on the Ionian coast of Reggio. The first documented finds date back to 1956, when a marble column was occasionally found. Then, the full archaeological area was discovered in 1963, following work for the construction of an aqueduct, near the road. After this date, the villa was systematically excavated and researched. Since 1998, the site has been managed by the municipality of Casignana which, with the acquisition of the neighboring lands, was able to significantly expand the protected area. Today, thanks to the vast archaeological excavations, the Villa and  a large private thermal complex were brought to light.

Lateral view on the room 25 of the Baths. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Archaeological Site

The villa, positioned perpendicular to the coastline, was built between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD and then restructured at the beginning of the 4th century with a division into two main sectors: A and B to the west and D and H to the east, separated by a peristyle.

The picture below highlights the general plan of the villa: (A – Nymphaeum; B) – Thermal complex including two Baths; C) – Southern Baths; D) – Residential complex; E) – Central courtyard with a portico that overlooks the sea; F) – Large southern building; G) – northern porticoed building; H) northern building. Note that the North direction on this plan is on the right side.

The map of the archaeological site. Source: “Ville residenziali nell’Italia tardoantica: Dati recente e nuove prospettive di ricerca”.

The residential wing must have been splendid, suitable for an important person, a magistrate or a patrician. The owner decided to build two private thermal facilities next to his Villa, adorned with mosaic floors of great value. In addition to floor mosaics, frescoes and wall marble veneers, it was highly likely that Villa at Palazzi di Casignana was decorated with marble statues, all kinds of movable furniture and artworks.

Partial 3D reconstruction of the site. Source: “Modellazione multiscala e multicanale per la comunicazione del patrimonio culturale: la Villa Romana di Palazzi di Casignana”.

Mosaics of the Baths and the Villa

The Baths and the Villa are characterized by an exceptional size and decorative apparatus: more than twenty rooms feature geometric and figurative mosaics and the discovery of glass paste tesserae also suggests the existence of a decoration of the vaults of the main rooms.

One of the most beautiful and refined mosaics can be seen in the two frigidaria of the Baths complex. In particular, mosaics of the “hall of the Nereids” in the frigidarium of the Eastern Baths, dated to the 3rd century, depict a marine thiasos (“thiasos” – a group of worshippers of a god)  with four female figures riding a lion, a bull, a horse and a tiger ending with a fish tail. The room has an octagonal plan and has four apse sides, it also has two cold water pools.

Mosaic in the frigidarium of the Eastern Baths (room 9) with a Nereid on a lion. Photo by Michel Gybels.

General view on the frigidarium of the Eastern Baths. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Room 25 represents the continuation of the room 9, and also served as the frigidarium of the Eastern Baths. This room is paved with an exquisite marble opus sectile, and features walls covered with marble veneers some of which still stand in place. The smaller tub located on the south side of the room was used for cold baths.

The Room 25 of the Eastern Baths. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The frigidarium of the Western Baths (Room 12) is decorated with geometrical mosaics. It was one of the most opulent and elegant rooms of the entire villa measuring ca. 6 m. x 6 m. The walls of the room were covered with marble veneers, portions of which are still visible today. The central area of Room 12 is paved with an elegant mosaic composed of white, black and green tesserae forming a perspective cube motif. A great quantity of light blue glass tesserae was
found in the room’s debris, suggesting the presence of a blue glass mosaic decorating the vaulted ceiling. The effect must have resembled a blue sky arching above the room, which was enhanced by the reflection of the water contained in the two tubs also situated in this beautiful room.

The frigidarium of the Western Baths (Room 12). Photo by Michel Gybels.

The calidarium of the Eastern Baths, with its hypocaust heating system, also has an octagonal plan and a mosaic floor in small tiles.

The hypocaust of the calidarium of the Eastern Baths. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The floor of Room 36 – which makes part of the Estaren Baths calidarium – rests on suspensurae and is paved with a complex, polychrome geometric mosaic.

Polychrome mosaic of the calidarium of the Eastern Baths (Room 36). Photo by Michel Gybels.

The floor of the room 24 – Calidarium of the Western Baths – was also built on suspensurae and is decorated with a geometric tesselatum. Remains of many glassy tesserae found in the area suggest the presence of another mosaic on the ceiling. On the photo of this room one can also see “tubuli” – tubes running up the walls to distribute heat.

Calidarium of the Western Baths. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The complex contains a beautiful rectangular hall (Room 7) – a dining room. The floor of Room 7 was paved with an elegant polychrome geometric mosaic featuring a four star motif. This room was identified as a triclinium, or dining room, as it is located in a particularly privileged position near the Courtyard and it has a view of the garden on the east side.

Room 7 – perhaps a dining room. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Mosaic pattern of the room 7. Photo by Michel Gybels.

On the opposite side of the road is located the residential part with numerous articulated rooms and a large courtyard.

Room “T” of the residential part of the Villa. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Mosaic Floors in the residential part. Photo by Michel Gybels.

In this residential part of the villa visitors can admire mosaic of the so-called “four seasons” hall. The floor of this room, used for banquets, is decorated with the personified faces of autumn, winter, spring and summer.

Villa romana di Casignana (room B) By Rjdeadly – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

“Four seasons” mosaic – personification of the summer. By Marcuscalabresus – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

The eastern facade of the Villa di Casignana’ residential area, which looks out towards the sea, represented a portico possibly flanked by two towers. The ground level structures of the portico are preserved, including the lower portions of the walls and parts of its polychrome floor mosaic.

Polychrome mosaics of the portico. Source: By Rjdeadly – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Detail of the mosaic in he Portico representing the “Indian Triumph of Dionysus“. By Rjdeadly – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,

The site of Casignana is considered the largest of those discovered so far in Calabria, and its importance is significant throughout southern Italy.

Sources:

“The Monumental Villa at Palazzi di Casignana and the Roman Elite in Calabria (Italy) during the Fourth Century AD”. Dissertation by Maria Gabriella Bruni, University of California.

“Modellazione multiscala e multicanale per la comunicazione del patrimonio culturale: la Villa Romana di Palazzi di Casignana”, Atti 13a  Conferenza Nazionale ASITA – Bari 1-4 dicembre 2009

“Ville residenziali nell’Italia tardoantica: Dati recente e nuove prospettive di ricerca”, Carla Sfameni. Piazza Armerina Villa del Casale. Scavi e studi nel decennio 2004-2014, edited by Pensabene Patrizio, Barresi Paolo, pp. 231–256. Roma: L’Erma di Bretschneider, 2019

Source of the header picture: Scavi archeologici non coperti della villa romana di Casignana, By Marcuscalabresus – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Curinga is a small village near Catanzaro in Calabria. The Calabrian area has always been an inexhaustible source of archaeological finds, especially in a well-demarcated area known as the Isthmus of Mercellinara: a narrow strip of land separating the Ionian Sea from the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Roman thermal baths of Acconia di Curinga are situated near the center of the village on a small rural road and the visit is free. They are supposed to be private baths that were part of a large monumental villa, belonging to a very powerful family. Situated near the via Popilia, which led from Rome to Reggio Calabria,  Curinga Roman Baths it is the only example of the use of Roman Africa’s construction techniques in Italy

Map of the Via Popilia. Public Domain

History of the Complex

The thermal complex of Acconia di Curinga is situated in the alluvial plain, shaped by the estuaries of Amato and Angitola rivers, in a very populated region since the Roman times.

Acconia region and Curinga on the Map of the Isthmus of Marcellinara. Source: Openstreetmap

The complex was built during the Imperial era and features various rooms like the frigidarium, the tepidarium and caldarium. The building, wrongly identified in ancient literature as the temple of Castor and Pollux, underwent scientific examination only from the 1960s onwards.

Appearance of the Curinga site in the 1960’s, before the excavations. Source: Klearchos magazine, 1966.

The discovered materials and analyzed masonry techniques corroborate the thesis that the baths were refurbished between the 3rd and the 4th century, and the monument remained in use until the end of the 6th century, serving different purposes.

View on the Baths complex. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Archaeological Survey 

The visible parts of the complex occupy an area of about 1000 square meters, even if preliminary investigations suggest a planimetric development, and thus land occupation, of at least twice as much. The structure consists of service and utility rooms. The first ones are located on the south-eastern side and are overall six praefurnia, functional to heating air and water. The second ones, starting from the South to the North are caldaria (marked by the letter “C” on the plan below), tepidaria (letter “T”), and a frigidarium (F). A rectangular room, interpreted until today as an atrium or gymnasium (“Atria” on the plan), could correspond to a natatio, according to new excavations. In the almost symmetrical layout, one could distinguish the rooms used by women from those used by men.

Plan of the Curinga Baths. Source: Intervento di valorizzazione e tutela delle Terme Romane di Curinga.

The Rooms

The entrance to the baths was probably on the northern side, where the last excavation campaign revealed several wall structures with an uncertain function. The frigidarium is the largest room in the baths, it has a rectangular shape and it includes two large exedras. The roof consisted of a wide central cross vault, ending with two arches set on quadrangular pillars that connected the space with the two exedras, covered by small domes. The internal face of the walls of the exedras were interrupted by three semicircular niches, carved into the masonry, that probably hosted some statues.

The view on the exedra of the frigidarium from the exterior of the Baths. Photo by Michel Gybels.

From the frigidarium there was an access to a small rectangular room, surrounded on three sides by other spaces: it was a tepidarium, in which acclimatization to the higher temperatures took place. It constituted, both functionally and architecturally, the connecting element between the frigidarium and the rest of the baths complex. Given the state of preservation of the building, bathing paths, related to the functions of each hall, can only be proposed as a hypothesis. The latest excavations have revealed a series of pillars that may belong to the peristyle of a probable gymnasium. The service rooms are all located on the southern and south-eastern side of the building.

A rectangular structure formerly believed to be a gymnasium is probably a pool – a natatio. Photo by Michel Gybels.

On the South side there is a corridor, which allowed the loading of the pre-sufornia for the southern basins of the calidaria. The corridor was accessible through a door on the western side of the wall with three steps, which make it clear that these rooms were located below the floor levels and away from the view of those who used the structure. The corridor has a well-preserved cobblestone pavement.

View on the southern part of the Baths complex. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Building Technique

The building technique that characterizes the first phase of the building is opus testaceum, as face of the wall structures. The bricks used in Curinga are between 3.5 and 4 cm high, varying in colour from bright red to yellow and alternating with mortar. A disastrous event affected the thermal complex in ancient times.

Example of the Opus Testaceum.

This is testified by a massive restoration intervention, both structural and conservative, characterized by a new type of building technique. That was a wall made of horizontal lithic elements alternating with bricks that were probably re-used.

The later wall re-built in opus vittatum using bricks and stones .

Another restoration of the baths, occurred in the 3rd and 4th century, was aimed at the structural reinforcement of the apse of the east caldarium, which was replaced by a curvilinear wall. Between the middle of the 4th century and the beginning of the 5th century the thermal complex was disused and lost its function.

Conclusion 

The construction of the thermal complex of Acconia di Curinga is part of a lively construction activity around the middle of the 2nd century. Its presence is also confirmed by the contemporary structures found in the Roman neighborhood of Santa Aloe in the nearby city of Vibo Valentia, an area where archaeological investigations have shown the presence of building facilities together with bath facilities, attributable to the middle of the 2nd century. It is still unclear whether the baths were public or private. Probably they were part of a private villa, but other hypotheses reveal that the thermal baths could be connected to a public building.

Gone into disuse probably for the extinction of the family that owned it, the structure was transformed during the first half of the sixth century and it was used as a place of Christian worship. The building, especially the frigidarium, well suited as a place of worship for the presence of pools that could be used as baptismal fonts.

Bibliography 

MEDRI M. – PIZZO A. (a cura di), Le terme pubbliche nell’Italia romana (II secolo a.C. – fine IV d.C). Architettura, tecnologia e società, Seminario Internazionale di Studio, Roma 4-5 Ottobre 2018, Roma 2019

CESAREO C.N., Le Terme Romane di Acconia di Curinga (IV sec. d.C.). Sintesi di bellezza e ingegneria, in «Lamezia Storica», numero 1, Agosto 2022

In 2019 a very special event took place: an exhibition called “Domus Grimani”. At this date, part of the Grimany collection joined for a short period the palace of its former owner – the recently restored Palazzio Grimani. For the first time in 400 years the ancient marbles could be seen again in their original setting, and they were exhibited according to the tastes of the time.

I visited this beautiful and unique exhibition – unfortunately finished for a while – and I have the pleasure to share below some photos and memories from my visit.  But first, I would like to say a few words about the family of Grimani, their palace and their Collection, which gave birth to the first public museum in Venice.

Palazzo Grimani – Entrance to the Museum. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The Palace of Grimani

The Grimani Palace in Santa Maria Formosa was built in the Middle Ages at the confluence of the canals of San Severo and Santa Maria Formosa. The palace, originally constructed on a Venetian-Byzantine plan, was modified and enhanced during the fifteenth century, becoming residence of the doge Antonio Grimani – a skilled spice merchant and first doge of the family. Antonio donated the palace to his sons (Domenico, Girolano, Pietro, Vincenzo and Marino), but the palace decorations were achieved by song of his son Girolano, his nephews Giovanni (1506-1593), Patriarch of Aquileia, and his brother Vettore. Until 1865, the palace remained the property of the Grimani family. By our time, and after several changes of owners, the palace was in an advanced state of disrepair – in 1981 it was acquired by the city of Venice. After a long restoration, it opened to the public in 2008.

Photo of the Grimani Palace before restoration. Source: “The restoration of Palazzo Grimani di Santa Maria Formosa in Venice”, Loggia N27, 2014.

The centerpiece of the Grimani palace is the Tribuna – a room that once housed dozens of statues and busts, the most beautiful of the Grimani collection. The room is unique in Venice, as it was inspired by the ancient Roman domus mixing roman style with the cultural climate of the Renaissance. Embellished with ancient and precious marbles such as yellow alabaster, green serpentine and red porphyry – from the eastern Mediterranean where the doge Antonio Grimani made his fortune as a spice merchant and military – the space was conceived as a spectacular reception hall, where part of the family collection was exhibited.

Tribuna East – view during the “Domus Grimani” Exhibition. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Grimani Family and their Collection   

The story of the Grimani collection began with the death of Domenico Grimani (1461 – 1523) – the Venetian Cardinal and son of the doge Antonio. Domenico has accumulated valuable antiquities during his life in Rome – his workers found many ancient statues while building his villa and working in his vineyards located on the Quirinal – there were vineyards in Rome at this time as the city had lost many inhabitants in the Middle Ages. Stricken by an illness in the Roman summer of 1523, Domenico Grimani composed his last will: at his death, a collection of Flemish paintings and some 20 classical sculptures in storage in Venice were to become property of the state.

Cardinal Domenico Grimani – After Lorenzo Lotto – UK Royal Collection. Public domain.

These paintings and antiquities had to be arranged in a room in the donor’s honor. This first collection remained in the Palazzo Ducale until 1586, when antiquities were entrusted to Giovanni Grimani, the Patriarch of Aquileia, pending the completion of the new public museum. A few months later, following the example of his illustrious uncle, Giovanni has decided to donate his own collection of 150 antiquities to the state. So, the collection was first started by Domenico Grimani and was subsequently extended by one of his four nephews – Giovanni.

Portrait of Giovanni Grimani – workshop of Jacopo and Domenico Tintoretto,  Public Domain.

Giovanni Grimani was the youngest among four brothers and he lived the longest live – he has inherited or purchased the assets of his brothers, including the collection of his brother Cardinal Marino. By 1586, when Giovanni Grimani took over the collection of his uncle Domenico, the octogenarian Patriarch of Aquileia was the most knowledgeable collector and connoisseur of antiquities in Venice. Disappointed in middle life in a bid to follow his uncle and brothers Marino and Marco to a cardinal’s honours in Rome, he had contented himself with the patriarchate and retiring to the family palace at Santa Maria Formosa – transforming it into a vast and famous museum of art.

Family tree of the Grimani. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Giovanni Grimani had no direct heirs and he was concerned that his collection would be dispersed after his death. So, in February 1587, he announced that he wished to offer his collection of antique sculpture to the Republic, provided it could be displayed in a “permanent setting”. Giovanni died in October 1593 but the chosen “permanent setting” for his collection at the Biblioteca Marciana was still no ready. The death of Giovanni forced the Signoria of Venice to accelerate the works on the “Statuario Publico” – they were overseen by the Procuratore di San Marco, Federico Contarini, who added to the Grimani collection some 17 sculptures he owned himself. At last, in the summer of 1596 the Statuario Publico at the Biblioteca Marciana was completed. This collection comprising antiquities from collections of Domenico Grimani, Giovanni Grimani and Federico Contarini became the nucleus of the National Archaeological Museum of Venice, where it is still on display until now.

Anton Maria Zanetti il Giovane, Statuario Pubblico della Serenissima, parete d’ingresso, Venezia, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana. Source: “Immagine originaria e stratificazione di identità mutate“.

Many pieces of the initial collection – busts of Apollo and Caracalla, head of Aphrodite and Dionysus – have been exhibited at the Biblioteca Marciana for 400 years, until the library’s had to undergo a restoration: in 2019 they were moved to the Palazzo Grimani for a temporary exhibition – the “Domus Grimani”.

‘Domus Grimani’ exhibition

The Tribuna, an actual “chamber of antiquities”, is the inner sanctum where Giovanni Grimani received his most illustrious guests. Illuminated from above and inspired by the Pantheon, it constitutes the pivot and the final destination of the itinerary along the rooms that precede it. It was originally accessible through a single doorway, but some small modifications have been made over the centuries—such as the installation of a large window and a second doorway leading to the Neoclassical room, which was used as a bedroom in the late eighteenth century. Visitors to the Domus Grimani exhibition have seen the Tribuna as it was in Giovanni’s day, thanks to the installation of two temporary architectural niches.

Verso of a drawing by Federico Zuccaro, circa 1582: study after part of the Tribuna of the Palazzo Grimani adorned with antique sculpture. Source: British Museum.

Tribuna South – during the “Domus Grimani” Exhibition. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Tribuna South and West – during the “Domus Grimani” Exhibition. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Exhibition highlights

At the center of the Tribuna one could see the “Rapt of Ganymede”, a roman copy made after a Greek Hellenistic original. In mythology, Zeus wanted to kidnap Ganymede and take him to Mount Olympus, where he would be the ‘cup holder to the gods’. Zeus disguised himself as an eagle, sweeping down from the heavens to carry Ganymede away. According to a legend, this sculpture would be a gift from Suleiman the Magnificent…

Rapt of Ganymede under the ceiling of the Tribuna. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Rapt of Ganymede – close up. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Another highlight of the Exhibiton was Aphrodite, AD 150-200: the sculpture was strongly restored in the Renaissance by Tiziano Aspetti. A hand of Aphrodite was added, as well as its head and the cupid besides…

Statue of Aphrodite or Capitoline Venus AD 2nd c. Head and bust restored by Tiziano Aspetti. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The next bust is probably the most enigmatic one: According to some attributions, it is a portrait of Antinous as a priest of Isis from Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli. As other busts of Isis priests, there is a cross-shaped mark on the skull of this portrait, but it is hard to say – despite some resemblance –  whether the artist has indeed represented Antinous.

Antinous (?) as a priest of Isis. Photo by Timetravelrome.

My personal favorites of the exhibition include some anonymous portraits, such as this male bust dated to the 3rd century AD and a woman marble portrait, dated to the first half of the 3rd century AD.

Portrait of a man 3rd century AD with a Renaissance bust from Luni marble. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Portrait of a woman 205 – 235 AD bust and neck added during Renaissance. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Imperial portraits were represented by a portrait of Caracalla, a 16-century portrait of Hadrian, a marble bust of Aelius (?) and this well preserved bust of Commodus.

Bust of Commodus as a youth 175-177 AD. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Two masks of Pan were part of the Tribuna decorations.

Mask of Pan – middle of the 2nd c AD. Photo by Timetravelrome.

But the main focus attention at the Exhibition was obviously the Tribuna itself: restored to its original beauty, the Tribuna offered a rare glimpse into the artistic taste of the Renaissance collectors of antiquities. Unfortunately, after the end of this temporary Exhibition in May 2021, the Tribuna returned to its beautifully restored but still less spectacular state.

Tribuna North. – during the “Domus Grimani” Exhibition. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Sources:

https://www.venetianheritage.org/project

Cardinal Domenico Grimani’s Legacy of Ancient Art to Venice, Marilyn Perry, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 41 (1978), pp. 215-244

The Statuario Publico of the Venetian Republic, Marilyn Perry, Saggi e Memorie di storia dell’arte, Vol. 8 (1972), pp. 75-150, 221-253

The restoration of Palazzo Grimani di Santa Maria Formosa in Venice, Loggia N27, 2014.

Immagine originaria e stratificazione di identità mutate“. Massimiliano Ciammaichella and Gabriella Liva. 2° Convegno Internazionale dei Docenti delle Discipline della Rappresentazione Congresso della Unione Italiana per il Disegno.

Main roman roads of the Northern Gaul. Source: Les voies romaines par la Wallonie

A Roman column erected in the center of Arlon to commemorate its Gallo-roman past. Source: Timetravelrome.

Arlon is home to several Gallo-Roman ruins and sites, each with its unique historical significance.

The Neptune Tower

The Roman Neptune Tower, discovered during excavations in 1948, was part of the rampart built in Roman times. This tower was an integral part of the Gallo-Roman ramparts of the city of Arlon dating from around the year 400. The ramparts had an approximate length of 850 meters and had between 15 and 20 defense towers.

Arlon – Perimeter of ancient defensive walls. Source: Timetravelrome.

Entrance to the Neptune tower site. Source: Timetravelrome.

The Neptune tower. Source: arlon.be

The reason the “Neptune” tower bears this name is that a magnificent block representing Neptune and his trident was discovered here. It is preserved in situ, in the heart of the tower’s foundations.

Relief with Neptune. Source: https://www.cirkwi.com/fr/point-interet/179240-tour-romaine-neptune

The Jupiter Tower

The Jupiter Tower was discovered in September 2009 at a distance of approximately 125 meters from the Neptune Tower. The tower is located along rue du Marquisat, on the ground floor of an extension of the Résidence de la Knippchen.

Jupiter Tower in Arlon. Source: Timetravelrome

The bas-relief of Jupiter Caelus at the Jupiter Tower. Source: Timetravelrome.

Two other defensive towers are known in Arlon but they are not yet open for visits.

Thermal Baths

The Orolaunum thermal baths were discovered in 1907 when locomotives depot was built on the “Vieux Cimeière” site. The baths had a classic tripartite layout: cold bath (frigidarium), warm bath (tepidarium) and hot bath (caldarium). A religious inscription dedicated to Hercules was also discovered on the site.

The site of the roman baths of Arlon. Source: arlon.be

Arlon Archaeological Museum – Hypocaust of the Baths.

The Roman column

In 1972, a drainage contractor discovered a large fragment of a religious monument erected to the glory of Jupiter, the celestial god and protector of families and their possessions. It is usually associated with a coronation featuring a horseman slaying a half-human, half-serpent monster. This type of monument was inspired by a model created in Mainz in honor of Nero. It is assumed to have an octagonal base dedicated to the gods of the week. The column in the Grand’ Rue is a reconstruction made from copies, installed in the early 1990s to evoke the city’s Gallo-Roman past.

Base of the “Roman column”. Source: Timetravelrome.

“Roman column” of Arlon. Source: Timetravelrome.

Arlon Archaeological Museum

Founded in 1934, the Musée Archéologique d’Arlon brings together a wealth of Gallo-Roman artefacts discovered in the province of Luxembourg. The Gallo-Roman Lapidary Gallery is the largest of its kind in Belgium, with the best-quality artefacts. It contains more than 425 sculptures from funerary monuments and civic buildings. The remarkable preservation of these sculptures is due to their re-use in the foundations of the rampart built at the end of Antiquity to protect Orolaunum vicus from Germanic invasions. At the end of the third century, Gaul, like the rest of the Roman Empire, experienced great instability, due to the presence of Germanic populations coming from the east. The inhabitants of Orolaunum, who until then had occupied the valley, took refuge on the hill and fortified it. They use stones from cemeteries or civil monuments, cut them, and make the foundations of a defensive wall. These remains are now exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of the city.

Below are a few highlights from the Museum’s collection.

Bacchic procession relief.

Relief depicting a meal scene in a house. Source: Timetravelrome.

Relief on the mausoleum of Vervicius depicting Ariadne on Naxos uncovered by Silenus on behalf of Bacchus. Source: Timetravelrome.

A relief with a warrior found in 1971 on rue de la Caserne. Source: Timetravelrome.

One of the my preferred objects in the Museum of Arlon are spherical-shaped balsamarii found at the necropolis of Hochgericht. I think they really look like Christmas balls.

Hochgericht Necropolis spherical balsamarii. Source: Timetravelrome.

Spherical balsamarium from Hochgericht Necropolis. Source: Timetravelrome.

Another exceptional and probably unique object displayed in the Museum of Arlon is a lead (!) mold used to produce fake coins. It was found in 1898, near Schadeck (Belgian Luxembourg), in a field where remains of a roman building could be seen. The imprint is that of a denarius of Nero. The forty-four imprints were made with the same piece placed successively at forty-four different locations of the mold. It is debatable what metal was used for the production of the fakes – it seems that the only possibility was to produce fake coins using an alloy of lead and tin.

Lead counterfeiting molds -found in 1898 near Schadeck. Source: Timetravelrome.

Another foto of the counterfeiting molds. Source: Timetravelrome.

I hope you have enjoyed this little story about the Gallo-roman Arlon and its archaeological museum !

Sources:

Les voies romaines par la Wallonie. La voie Metz-Tongres.

Revue Belge de Numismatique, 1920.

Header picture: Arlon Archaeological Museum – balsamarii found at the Hochgericht Necropolis. Source – Timetravelrome.

Two Aqueducts of Arles

As early as the Augustan era, the colony of Arles was fed by several springs located in the Alpilles mountain range, to the northeast of the town.

The map of the Arles aqueducts exhibited in the Arles Archaeological Museum. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

A first 51 km aqueduct (known as the Eygalières aqueduct) drew water from the northern slopes of the massif most of which flowed underground to the west following the rock face. This structure was remarkable for its extremely shallow slope, of the order of a few tens of millimeters per meter.

The “Caparon” aqueduct, a second, shorter structure (11 kms long) collected water from the Entreconque rock and followed the southern flank of the Alpilles to the west.

Traces of aqueducts within the city of Arles. The map from the Arles Archaeological Museum. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

The two branches meet south of today’s Fontvieille in a basin of convergence. From here, a single 325 meters-long aqueduct-bridge crossed the Vallon des Arcs, then curved westwards and entered Arles near today’s cemetery, and finally split off at the Forum. The water was then distributed to the various districts by a system of lead pipes.

Constantine Baths in Arles – reconstruction. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

Although considerable, the aqueduct’s flow rate may not have been sufficient to supply the thermal baths, fountains and basins of the many villas. Wells and cisterns designed to collect rainwater were therefore in use throughout antiquity.

Constantine Baths in Arles today. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

Probably as early as the 2nd century, water from the southern aqueduct was diverted shortly before arriving at the Barbegal convergence basin, and flowed over a second aqueduct-bridge built parallel to the first. Taking advantage of a of almost 20 meters, the water was used as a motive force to turn the wheels of a huge milling plant: the Mills of Barbegal.

The Mills of Barbegal

So, the Barbegal aqueduct and mills was a Roman watermill complex located on the territory of the commune of Fontvieille, Bouches-du-Rhône, near the town of Arles, in southern France. The complex has been referred to as “the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world” and the 16 overshot wheels are considered to be the largest ancient mill complex.

The “arrival” point at the site of Barbegal. On the right one can see the channel turning – this branch of the aqueduct led towards Arles. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

Another similar mill complex existed on the Janiculum in Rome, and there are suggestions that further such complexes existed at other major Roman sites, such as Amida (Mesopotamia)

Aqueduct of Barbegal. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Barbegal site is located 12 kilometers east northeast of Arles near Fontvieille, where the Arles aqueduct passed near a steep escarpment. The mills consisted of 16 water wheels in two parallel sets of eight descending a steep hillside. There are substantial masonry remains of the water channels and foundations of the individual mills, together with a staircase rising up the hill upon which the mills were built. The mills operated from the beginning of the 2nd century until about the end of the 3rd century.

Remains of the mills complex on the slope of the hill. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of flour per day, enough to supply bread for as many as 10,000 of perhaps 30–40,000 inhabitants of Arelate at that time. It is thought that the wheels were overshot water wheels with the outflows driving successive wheels to the base of the hill.

Mills of Barbegal – Reconstruction. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

Vertical water mills were well known to the Romans, being described by Vitruvius in his De architectura of 25 BC, and mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historiæ of 77 AD. There are also later references to floating water mills from Byzantium and to sawmills on the river Moselle by the poet Ausonius. The use of multiple stacked sequences of reverse overshot water wheels was widespread in Roman mines, especially in Spain and Wales. It is possible that the mills at Barbegal may also have been used for sawing timber and stone when not grinding wheat. The Hierapolis sawmill from the 3rd century AD shows a crank-activated frame saw being used in this way, and another has been excavated at Ephesus.

Ruins of the Barbegal Aqueduct. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Visiting the Site of Barbegal Mills

Visitors to Barbegal may park where a minor road (Route de L’Aqueduc) crosses the massive remains of the original aqueduct, and, with olive orchards on either side, walk south about 250 meters along the partially erect remains of the aqueduct and through the three meter deep rock-hewn cleft emerging at the top of the mill complex. Extensive farmland comes into view and spans 180° of the horizon to the south. The site is signposted as “Roman aqueduct” rather than as a mill. The Arles Museum of Antiquity has an informative reconstructed model of the mill – it is pictured above. The visit of the site is free.

The road cutting the Barbegal aqueduct in two. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

Source of the header picture:

The archaeological park of Baia stands out not only for the important remains of Roman civilization, but also for the beauty of the environment and landscape. You can see the Baths in a unique landscape, and with a view of the Golfo di Bacoli, where you can found a sort of “Roman Atlantis” that is a part of the ancient city of Baia, which was submerged by the sea.

History

The site is part of the “Parco archeologico dei Campi Flegrei”, that is located between Pozzuoli, Cuma and Capo Miseno. This area was appreciated for the beautiful landscape even in the ancient times.

In particular the ancient city of Baia (Baiae in Latin), was famous for its thermal water and was a place where ancient Romans loved to go on holiday, since the 2nd century B.C., where we can set the date of the most ancient archaeological remains. Then, in Baia where built many villae, where many important people and Emperors could practice otium, to escape the frenetic life in Rome.

The ancient Baiae. By Jean-Claude Golvin.

The city, according to Strabo, was named after Baio, who was the helmsman on Ullyses’ ship and was buried in that place. Many ancient writers, for example Ovidius and Cicero describe this city or write about facts happened there. The popularity of Baia lasted until the 5th Century A.D., when because of bradyseism, the area started to collapse progressively, and in the 7th Century A.D. part of the city and the ancient harbor was entirely submerged.

View of imperial complex in Baia. By Tyler Bell – View Of Imperial Complex, Baia, CC BY 2.0.

The Villa Dell’Ambulatio

The archaeological site includes different buildings and it is possible to found some relevant nucleus. The most ancient part (2nd century B.C.) is the “Villa dell’Ambulatio”, that was named after a covered colonnade that is part of the building.

The structures of the Villa are partly well kept and give the visitor a general idea of a typical Roman villa. The original structure dates back to the end of the 2nd, beginning of the 1st century B.C, but its actual aspect is generally dated to the 1st century A.D. for the building technique with opus reticolatum.

One of the rooms of the Villa – built in opus reticolatum. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Considered first as a great thermal bath, it was generically defined as a terraces complex because of the particular disposition of the structures on a series of artificial basements (basis villae) descending to the sea, according to a building technique typical of many Roman residences.

The hill with the Villa view before the excavations. Early 20th century. From the article “Alle origini di una difficile tutela: Amedeo Maiuri e i restauri al Parco archeologico delle Terme di Baia” by Luigi Veronese.

To visit the monument it’s best to start from the first terrace situated on the mountain, where the residential area is. Going up the north flight of stairs, one arrives to a series of sitting rooms, situated on the west side with floors in opus sectile or in mosaic and walls originally covered with marble. A great panoramic room, a nice peristyle and an apsidal room situated at the south extremity are visible.

The upper part of the Villa. Photo by Michel Gybels.

From the south flight one can go down to the second terrace occupied by the ambulatio. This terrace was the basement of the villa situated on the superior level and later was transformed in a covered portico, divided in two naves by a series of pillars connected with arches.

Arches connecting parts of the terrace. By Ra Boe / Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Along the west side, centrally, a big room opens with a rectangular plan with exedra and three niches on the lateral walls. Along the portico various architectonic fragments are exposed, found in the waters of the port of Baia, and formed the marble decoration of some structures connected to the imperial Palatium of the Severi’s Age (3rd century A.D.)

Portico area with architectural details of the Villa. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Proceeding south, one goes down the stairs which surround the entire complex along the complete south side. After the two flights one enters on the left into the third terrace, actually occupied by a garden. Also this terrace can be considered as an ambulatio with pillars which supported the vault covering.

Continuing down the south stairs one arrives at the level of the fourth terrace, characterized by two parallel corridors above which a series of rooms opens, considered as an area for the service personnel.

Semi-circular structure at the base of the hill. Photo by Michel Gybels.

On the south stairs one can go down for two flights to arrive then at the level of the fifth terrace. On the left one enters directly in a room which is the first of a series of rooms all facing the sea. Along the west side the original wall of the basis villae is visible, constituted by an architectonic façade with blind arcades and half columns. Then it was included in the opposite rooms built later. There is also a rectangular room which is covered and floored with marble. Some flights led to the superior level, to enter other rooms, at north, which have been destroyed, and to go down to the last terrace.

Villa’ arcades. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The sixth terrace is made up of a wide open area, destined to be a garden, with a series of rooms on the south side, surrounded on the west by the long supporting wall of the upper level. Probably in a more ancient phase the garden was surrounded by a peristyle but a sure interpretation of this wide area is difficult because there have been a lot of work done in a successive age to search for underground thermal waters.

The lower part of the Villa. The dome of the Temple of Mercury can also be seen. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The decorations and the artifacts from this very interesting archaeological site are exposed in the  Museo dei Campi Flegrei, in Baia. There are also objects from the sites of Linternum, Miseno, Pozzuoli and Cuma. The Museum is located in the Aragonese Castle, build in the 16th century, which includes in its area remains of Julius Caesar’s villa.

Castello Aragonese (Baia). By Ra Boe / Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Source: Information boards on the site

I am sharing with you today this double discovery – of the exhibition and of the place that houses it.

The Guy Ladrière Collection

Guy Ladrière is a Parisian dealer specializing in primitive and medieval arts. He has been collecting ancient jewelry, stones and craftsmanship for decades. Comprising some three hundred items, his collection includes a rich mixture of cameos and intaglios, rings and other jewels.

Stand of the Exhibition with ancient rings. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

The time span of the collection ranges from the Ancient Greece to gemstones and rings of the nineteenth century. This exceptional collection is being presented to the public for the first time.

Stand of the Exhibition: Ancient Rome. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

The Exhibition organized by the School of Jewelry Arts is structured by themes, where rings, cameos or intaglios are presented according to a particular period or theme. Guy Ladrière was collecting gems guided by his taste and his passion, which explains the eclectic nature of the objects, but also the high aesthetic value they represent.

The chronology of the collection spans more than 20 centuries but due to our interest for the Ancient history, we will highlight in this post only masterpieces dated to the ancient times. For a broader overview of the Collection, you may check our Flickr album here:  Guy Ladrière Collection.

• Roman Imperial Portraits

Emperor Augustus. Ruby intaglio. Attributed to Dioscorides, 1st century AD. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

The emperor Caracalla. Ruby intaglio on a modern gold ring. Rome. Early 3rd century. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

Roman Emperor Titus. Chalcedony bust. Rome, 1st century AD. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

Constantine II (?). Turquoise. End of 3rd century AD. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

• Cameos and Intaglios

Jupiter sardonyx cameo. Rome, beginning of the 3rd century A.D. On a gold box by Gabriel Morel. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

Medusa, Cameo in sardonyx, Rome, I-IIth century. Found in Rome, in Tibre in 1886. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

Medusa, Cameo in sardonyx, Rome, I-IIth century. Found in the Tiber in Rome in 1886.

Ptolemy XII Aulete with Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II (?). Cameo in sardonyx. Egypt. 1st century BC. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

Isis and Serapis, rock crystal intaglio on a pendant. Portraits of the Tetrarchs (?). End of the 3rd century AD. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

Six profiles of saints? Intaglio in sanguine jasper. Byzantium ?, Northern Europe ? 13th century ? Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

• Ancient Rings 

Head of Bacchus. Intaglio of 1st-2nd century AD on a Merovingian gold ring 6-7th century. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

Roman ring bearing the name of Hilarsis. 3rd century AD. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

Roman gold ring. Inscription IVSTVS. 1st-2nd century AD. Source: Timetravelrome on Flickr.

Bearded man’s head. Ring in amber. 2nd century AD.

The School of Jewelry Arts – L’École des Arts Joailliers

L’École des Arts Joailliers (the School of Jewelry Arts), which hosts the Guy Ladrière Collection is located just a few meters from Place Vendôme, in a beautiful 18th century mansion. Dedicated to the transmission of the jewelry arts, the School was created at the initiative of Van Cleef & Arpels.

The School has developed a very original experience-based way of learning about jewelry: it offers the possibility of discovering the jewelry craftsmanship through immersive workshops open to all. Classes are organized around three main themes: the history of jewelry, the world of stones and know-how. These courses can be chosen “à la carte”, and they are open to all requiring no prior knowledge.

I had a unique chance to visit the School guided by its President, Mme Marie Vallanet-Delhom. This wonderful opportunity was offered to me, and I am sharing with you a few insights about the journey of School’ students.

White coats are embroidered with the name of the School of Jewelry Arts. Students put them before they attend the lesson.

Each class is led by two experts, so that each student is receiving enough of attention depending on his / her skills and level of knowledge.

The gemology class is equipped for the discovery of precious stones.

The enameling courses allow you to discover the entire production cycle of enameled jewelry.

The library is a space of rest and conviviality.

Registration for the School’s courses is available on its website. In addition to its presence in Paris, the School has an office in Hong Kong where courses are also offered.

Guy Ladrière exhibition and Address of the School

“Engraved stones. Cameos, inlays and rings from the Guy Ladrière collection”

L’École des Arts Joailliers, 31, rue Danielle-Casanova, 75001 Paris

www.lecolevancleefarpels.com

From May 12 to October 1, 2022.

Source of the Featured picture: Stand with ancient rings. Timetravelrome Album on Flickr.

Rome, the City and the Empire – Exhibition at Louvre Lens.

Masterpieces of Louvre Collection

The greatest masterpieces from the Roman collections of the Louvre Museum in Paris are presented on this occasion to tell the story of Rome, its empire and its art. Few museums outside Italy have a collection of antiquities that offers such a broad overview of Roman art as the Louvre.

Statue of Nero as boy. 1st century AD. The boy wears the “toga praetexta” over a tunic and a “bolla” is worn around the neck. The right hand was restored. From Borghese collection. In Louvre since 1807.

Roman civilization expressed itself through all the arts of its time and spread on a very large scale, even to the present-day region of Hauts-de-France, which in ancient times was part of the province of Belgian Gaul. Its artistic models spread on a large scale and mixed with other traditions in many regions.

Relief from the Forum Trajan. It shows a sacrificial procession with emperor Trajan in tunic and toga, surrounded by lictors. In the background the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Rom, early 2nd century AD. From Borghese Collection. In Louvre since 1807.

Bust of Augustus. Rome. End of 1st century BC / beginning of the 2nd century AD. From Borghese Collection. In Louvre since 1807.

Roman life expressed through art

In its open society, art was expressed both through official and popular commissions as well as through popular manifestations. This artistic heterogeneity reflects the great social, cultural and geographical diversity of an empire that stretched from Western Europe to the Near East and whose history spans more than thirteen centuries.

A so called “Campana Plaque” showing chariot race. In the background – a lap counter in the shape of five dolphins. Dated to the 1st-2nd centuries AD. Acquired by Louvre in 1825. 

From the work of the mind to that of the fields, from the entertainment of the theatre, the circus or the hunt to the pleasures of banqueting, bathing, grooming and love, Roman art represented everything, paying equal attention to the details of official or private, imperial or popular life.

Fragment of a floor mosaic: the preparations for a banquet. About 180-190 AD. In Louvre collection since 1891.

A funerary stele with an image of a gladiator. Below – epitaph of Araxios by his wife Ammias. Date: 150 – 225 AD. From Lydia, Thyatira. Donated to Louvre in 1904.

Variety of techniques and themes

The exhibition mixes materials and techniques, alternating large-scale works with more modest objects. The entire exhibition is organized around major themes that do not ignore the chronology of this fascinating civilization.

Mosaic dating from 200 / 225 AD. Found in Antakya (Antioch on Orontes) in 1934, in the house of the Psyches. The portrait is probably an allegory of Oceanide.

The more than four hundred unique exhibits offer a fascinating view of the politics, urbanization, religious and artistic experience, as well as the social and geographical aspect of that rich Roman civilization, which is also inextricably linked to the ancient Greek world.

Part of a necklace. 350-400 AD, possibly from Constantinople. At the center – aureus of Constantine I; surrounded by 3 busts of women, an old man, and a young man.

Sarcophagus depicting Christ in the midst of the apostles, called “Traditio Legis”. It was found in Rome in the mausoleum of the Anicii, under the apse of St. Peter’s in the Vatican. The four sides of the sarcophagus were dispersed: three (front and sides) are in the Louvre and the fourth in Rome in the Palazzo dei Conservatori. The pieces in the Louvre come from the Borghese collection (purchased in 1808).

Syncretic culture of Rome

Roman culture presents very strong peculiarities. Rome developed its own political organization, visual culture, religious concept and original customs. This rich culture simultaneously fed on the many influences from the Mediterranean world and especially from the Greek ancient world, the ideal of the time.

Orestes and Pylades, 1st century AD from a Greek original. It was carved by Pasiteles, Greek sculptor active in Rome in the first century BC. From Borghese collection; in Louvre since 1807.

The universal pretensions of the rulers soon multiplied as the city opened up to the many annexed provinces: the local elite acquired Roman citizenship, engaged in an imperial career and the wealthiest citizens from the provinces participated in the Senate. Several Roman emperors originated from these provinces in the second century AD.

Busts Roman Emperors: Two busts of Marcus Aurelius found in 1674 at near Rome in Acqua Traversa. The first depicts a young Emperor, and the second – the Emperor in a more advanced age. The third bust is of Septimius Severus.

This prestigious exhibition focuses on the contribution of Rome’s citizens to the city’s political system, as well as on the Senate, the magistracy, the imperial cult, architecture, literature, dramaturgy and philosophy, which all together left a great mark on the ancient city. Furthermore, extensive attention is paid to the military exploits and the religious cults in the Roman Empire.

Mithra relief found in 1926 in Fiano Romano. Part of the permanent Louvre-Lens collections.

In short, the exhibition offers the visitor a fascinating and penetrating insight into virtually all aspects of life in ancient Rome.

Portrait of Pompey the Great, 3rd quarter of the 1st century BC. Acquired by Louvre in 2017.

In addition, several panels and maps provide clear explanations in French, English and Dutch. The exhibition still runs until 25 July 2022.

All useful information on the website www.louvrelens.fr

Written by Michel Gybels for Time Travel Rome

History of Dalmatia

The most ancient inhabitants of Dalmatia were probably Illyrians of which the current Albanians seem the last descendants. Other local inhabitants were Liburnians – the seafaring people inhabiting the coastline. The coastal area of Dalmatia was colonized then first by Phoenicians, then by Greeks.

In 181 BC, the Romans established their colony at Aquileia and took control of all Venetia in the north. Roman legions then moved southward, defeating the southern Illyrians and the local king Gentius in 167 BC. In 59 BC, Illyricum was assigned as a provincia to Julius Caesar, and the main Liburnian city of Iadera (modern Zadar) was proclaimed a Roman municipium.

Romanized and Hellenized Illyria & Dalmatia Map. By MaryroseB54 – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

But Roman rule in Illyricum stayed only nominal as local Illyrian and Liburnian pirates controlled large parts of the coast and systematically attacked trade routes. In 35 BC Octavian organized a major military operation, to finally stabilize Roman control over the province.

Panorama of the ancient Salona. Full TimeTravelRome Salona album: Link.

After the division of the empire in the 4^th century AD, Dalmatia was attributed to the Empire of the West, but shortly after the death of Honorius (423 AD) it was reunited with that of the East. After the fall of the Western empire, Dalmatia was conquered by the tribe of Heruli, and then it was attached to the kingdom of Ostrogoths. After that, during the rule of Justinian, the area fell again under the control of Constantinople.

Monumental stone on the Forum of Zadar. Full TimeTravelRome album with ancient Zadar photos: Link.

Starting from the 6th-7th centuries, Dalmatia was controlled by Avars, then by Slavic tribes, who recognized the suzerainty of the Frankish emperors, but major cities on the coast fell in the 9^th century under control of the Greek empire. The area was controlled by local princes with alternate influence from Croatia, Byzantium and Venice.

City gates of Zadar with a Lion – symbol of Venice. TimeTravelRome album with Zadar photos: Link.

Under the reign of Bela IV (1235-1270), Dalmatia was shortly invaded by the Mongols who were pushed back. In 1409, the King Ladislaus of Naples – an unsuccessful claimant to the kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia – sold his rights to Dalmatia to the Republic of Venice for 100,000 ducats. Dalmatia remained in Venetians possession until the end of the 18^th century.

In this article we will highlight all major Roman sites of the ancient Dalmatia, as well as most important archaeological museums of Dalmatia.  We are starting the journey with one of the main touristic destination of the Dalmatian coast – the city of Split.

Split and Diocletian Palace

The modern city of Split in the south of Croatia, Spalatum was originally founded as a colony by the Greeks from the Sicilian city of Syracuse. Known as Aspálathos, the colony was founded between the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. By merit of its position on the Dalmatian coast, the city was mainly used as port of passage, ferrying peoples around the Mediterranean.

Diocletian Palace in Split. By Ernest Hébrard (recoloured by DIREKTOR), Public Domain.

Spalatum came under Roman control in the early part of the 1st century A.D. Under imperial control, the city flourished. It became an important port, prospering in the relative peace ensured by the Roman Empire. The apogee of Spalatum arrived in the later imperial period. It was at Spalatum that the Emperor Diocletian built his palace – the ruins of which areas of the modern city are built in. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D., the city endured for a while as one of the most prominent cities in the Byzantine Empire.

Diocletian Palace

The Diocletian Palace in Split was built at the end of the 4th century as the retirement residence of Diocletian. One of the best preserved and impressive parts of it is the Peristyle – the central part of the Palace.

Peristyle – the central part of the Palace. Full album: Link.

The Palace was decorated with 3500-year-old granite sphynxes dated to the times of the Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III. Three of them have survived. One is on the Peristyle, the second sits in front of Jupiter’ temple.

Granite sphynx dated to the times of Thutmose III. Full album: Link.

The Mausoleum of Diocletian later became the Cathedral of St. Domnius. The original dome had an oculus.

The Mausoleum of Diocletian – the Cathedral of St. Domnius. Full album: Link.

Decorative freeze refers to the after-life symbolism.

Decorative freeze in the Mausoleum of Diocletian. Full album: Link.

The Temple of Jupiter was built between 295 and 305 AD, and it is very well preserved.

The Temple of Jupiter. Full album: Link.

The vaulted ceiling of the Temple consists of 64 panels, each with decorated sides.

The vaulted ceiling of the Jupiter Temple. Full album: Link.

Some panels have faces representing a particular emotion.

Panels of the Jupiter Temple vault. Full album: Link.

The so-called Vestibule is the Atrium of the Palace. Its roof has an opening called Oculus.

Vestibule is the Atrium of the Palace. Full album: Link.

This is the Porta septemtrionalis or the Golden Gate & its inner view. On the left & right side of the gate are niches where the statues of the Tetrarchs stood: Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus. The door was defended by two octagonal towers since lost.

Porta Septemtrionalis or the Golden Gate. Full album: Link.

The Archaeological Park of the Ancient Salona

Salona has been inhabited by Illyrian tribes since before recorded history. It became a trading outpost during the 3rd century B.C. after being colonized by Greeks. The town grew to become one of the largest in its area, becoming one of the few urban centers in the region. Under Rome, which conquered the area at the end of the 2nd century B.C., it became capital of the province of Dalmatia as a reward for helping Caesar against his opponent Pompey.

Many of the civil structures that made Salona into the Dalmatian capital left ruins in a good state of preservation, such as the amphitheater and the aqueduct, and a large area of the city is still visible through the existence of partial perimeter walls. Inside the ruins an ancient Christian church stands between Roman ruins, attesting to the importance of early Christianity in Salona. The city was prosperous during roman times, but it was ruined by Avars in the 7th c. AD.

The so-called “Five Bridges” in the Archaeological park of Salona. Full album: Link.

The archeological park of Salona is the place where the ruins of the ancient city still can be seen by visitors. The most prominent structure in the archaeological parc is the Amphitheater. Built in the 2nd century, it could have up to 18.000 spectators, compared to 60.000 inhabitants of Salona at that time. The structure was partly destroyed during the 17th century wars with Turkey.

The Amphitheater of Salona. Full album: Link.

The earlier part of the Roman city corresponds to the area around the Forum & Theatre – they are less prominent than the Amphitheater but still well visible today.

The Theater near the Forum. Full album: Link.

Salona had a mint connected with silver mines in the Dinaric Alps through Via Argentaria. Several other regional roads started from Salona gates, the best preserved being the the Porta Caesarea. Its stone paving still keeps traces of roman carts.

Porta Caesarea. Full album: Link.

An aqueduct was built under Augustus – it carried water from the river Jadro, supplying the city and its Baths. The biggest bath is called Great Thermae – it occupies the prominent place in the eastern part of the city.

Great Thermae. Full album: Link.

Since antiquity, Salona was an important Christian center. The oldest church of Salona was used since the middle of the 3rd century. Later, at its original location, a huge episcopal center was built in the 5th century AD.

Remains of the episcopal center. Full album: Link.

Another Christian place just outside of Salona is the so-called “Manastirine”. The first complex was destroyed by Germans in the 3rd c., but a larger basilica was rebuilt here in the 5th c. Many martyrs killed in the nearby amphitheater were buried here.

Manastirine. Full album: Link.

Guests to Salona can also visit “Tusculum” – a memorial Museum dedicated to Frane Bulić, the first archaeologist of Salona. The facade of the Museum is using ancient parts.

Tusculum. Full album: Link.

Trogir – Hidden gems of the ancient Tragurion

The Greek Tragurion was founded as a trading outpost by colonists from the island of Vis in the 3rd c. BC –  modern Trogir has kept the same city plan.

Trogir is a popular touristic destination. Full album: Link.

The Greek city had megalithic walls – huge stones in the old city’ garden once belonged to these walls.

Remains of the ancient city walls. Full album: Link.

The City Museum hosts a small collection of roman tombstones and other monuments, but it also allows seeing remains of the ancient water conduct system & walls dated to Roman times.

Water conduct system dated to Roman times. Full album: Link.

Ancient stone monuments include a miliarium of Trajan, a representation the Illyrian god Sylvanus, an altar dedicated to Hercules as well as some examples of the very early Christian art (4th century AD).

Representation the Illyrian god Sylvanus. Full album: Link.

One of the main highlights of the ancient Trogiris the relief of Kairos – God of Happy Moments. It is kept in the Benedictine nunnery of Trogir. Kairos appears on this exceptional relief as a naked young man with a tuft of hair – one needs to grab it at the right moment or the chance will be lost forever as Kairos is always in a hurry! The ancient Greeks had two words for “time”: chronos and kairos. The former refers to chronological time, and the latter signifies a moment of time in which something special happens. “Kairos” is used 86 times in the New Testament, whereas “chronos” is used there 54 times.

Kairos relief. Full album: Link.

The original bronze statue of Kairos was made by Lysippos and it stood in the Agora of Sikyon. Kairos is described in the epigram of the poet Posidippos from 3 th c. BC:
– Who are you?
– Time who subdues all things.
– Why do you stand on tip-toe?
– I am ever running
– And why you have a pair of wings on your feet?
– I fly wilh a wind.
– And why do you hold a razor in your right hand?
– As a sign to men that I am sharper than any sharp edge.
– And why does your hair hang over your face?
– For him who meets me to take me by the forelock.
– And why, in Heaven’s name, is the back of your head bald?
– Because none whom I have once raced by on my winged feet will now, though he wishes it sore, take hold of me from behind. – Why did the artist fashion you?
– For your sake, stranger, and he set me up in the porch as a lesson.

Kairos relief – detail. Full album: Link.

Another hidden gem of Trogir is the St. Barbara Church. It was built in the 9-10th century from fragments of ancient stones. The portal is constructed of parts of a sarcophagus, decorated by Early Christian crosses.

St. Barbara Church – entrance. Full album: Link.

The ancient columns are seen inside.

St. Barbara Church – inside. Full album: Link.

Zadar – The Roman city of Iader

Founded as an Illyrian outpost during the 11th century B.C. and dominated by the Liburnians, Iader was an important trading hub. The city was helped by its strategic position: it was the main port on the trade route to the Balkans. Thanks to that, the city became prosperous, adopting Roman culture and customs. When the western Roman Empire fell apart, and the Dalmatia region was abandoned, most of the roman citizens retreated to Iader, making it one of the last strongholds of Roman culture in the region until medieval times.

Roman Forum of Zadar. Full album: Link.

Most Roman remains were destroyed in medieval times, but some sites still can be seen and visited. The ancient Roman forum has been excavated inside of the city and is open to visitors. Built under Augustus, this forum is the largest one on the eastern side of the Adriatic Sea.

Remains of houses and tavernas near the Forum. Full album: Link.

Roman Temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. Full album: Link.

The St Donatis Church of Zadar was built in the 9th century – the impressive medieval building literally stands on remains of the Roman temple and Forum.

The St Donatis Church of Zadar. Full album: Link.

Internal structures are almost entirely built from roman spolia. The church is the largest pre-romanesque building in Croatia.

The St Donatis Church of Zadar. Full album: Link.

Many important finds can be seen in the Archaeological Museum of Zadar – more about it at the end of this article. Zadar also hosts a spectacular Museum of Ancient Glass, also described in this article below.

The Ancient Narona

Situated within the Roman province of Dalmatia, Narona emerged as an important focus of Roman power in the region and a base from which revolts could be put down. The presence of many merchants and soldiers made the city wealthy: archaeological finds include luxurious private homes and expensive statuary.

Archaeological museum Narona, Vid, Croatia. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

After going into decline as a commercial center, the city came under Byzantine rule in the 6^th century AD and was finally abandoned a century later. It is still possible to see the ruins of Narona’s walls and the foundations of various buildings. Of particular note is a group of statues known as the Augusteum that depicts the emperor Augustus and his family. Finds are preserved in the Archaeological Museum in Narona, which occupies the site of the ancient forum.

Statues of emperor’s family (from left): Lucius Caesar, Julius Caesar, Julia, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Antonia Minor, Octavia the Younger, Livia, Augustus, Tiberius, Germanicus, Nero Claudius Drusus, Claudius, Agrippina the Younger, Agrippina the Elder, Vespasian. By Rolf Kawel – Self-photographed, CC BY-SA 3.0 de.

Military Camp and Amphitheater at Burnum

The Roman city of Burnum is thought to have been founded in 33 BC, or possibly later. The fort here was heavily used by legions fighting to control the region early in the first century AD.

Triumphal arch at Burnum. Full album: Link.

In AD 42, however, legionaries based at the fort began their own rebellion against the emperor Claudius. After the legions vacated the site in AD 86, it developed as a primarily civilian settlement. It was recognized as a city under Hadrian, though little is now known about its exact size. Archaeologists have identified the remains of a temple to Jupiter and an amphitheater among other structures.

Roman Amphitheater at Burnum. Full album: Link.

Ultimately, the city was destroyed by Justinian in the 6^th century after it had fallen into the hands of the Ostrogoths.

Roman camp at Burnum. Full album: Link.

Among the ruins that are visible today, the most impressive are the remains of an arcade of five arches, of which two remain standing. Nearby are the ruins of the city’s amphitheater.

Epidaurum – Cavtat

The Greek colony of Epidauros was founded in the sixth century BC and ultimately came under the rule of Rome in 228 BC, as Epidaurum, as part of the province of Illyricum. It was besieged by Pompey during the civil war between his armies and those of Julius Caesar but it managed to survive destruction through the centuries until the seventh century AD, when it fell to the Avars and Slavs.

Cavtat Archeological site. By Erud – Own work, CC BY 3.0.

Refugees from the city went north and founded a new city, which in due course became Dubrovnik. Ruins of the ancient city include a villa, baths and the remains of an aqueduct. Finds from the site, among them pottery and inscriptions, may be seen in museums in Cavtat and Dubrovnik.

Cavtat archaeological site. Source: dulist.hr

Ancient municipium Riditarum (Rider) – Danilo

Danilo is one of the most significant archeological sites in Croatia. Remains of the Municipium Riditarum include a villa with a bath, houses and details of a temple. Before Romans, Danilo was hometown of the eponymous Neolithic culture known by its enigmatic cultic vessels. Here are a few pictures of the Danilo culture (4700-3900 BC) – nobody understood the purpose of these vessels yet.

Cultic vessel – Danilo Culture. Sibenik Museum. Full album: Link.

The settlement was flourishing during the roman times, achieving the rank of municipium under the Flavian emperors in the second half of the 1st century A.D.  Several of the structures uncovered here are monumental in scale.

Archaeological site of Riditarum – Danilo. Full album: Link.

One of the most prominent of these was an expansive villa with accompanying bathing complex.

Archaeological site of Riditarum – Danilo. Ancient Baths. Full album: Link.

Archaeological site of Riditarum – Danilo. Roman Villa. Full album: Link.

Later in the imperial period, this bathing complex was converted into an Early Christian church.

Monumental Temple at Aenona – Nin

The modern city of Nin in the Zadar county, Aenona was one of the oldest settlements on the Adriatic.  From the 9th century B.C., it was the home of the Liburnian people, an Illyrian tribe. Aenona was incorporated into the Roman world early in the 1st century AD and granted the status of municipium by the Emperor Tiberius. By the start of the 6th century AD the area fell under Ostrogothic control.

Ancient walls of Aenona. Full album: Link.

Fragmentary remains of the ancient city are still visible. Under the later medieval walls, one can identify the foundations of the Roman circuit upon which they were built.

Remains of Roman houses at Aenona.

The remains of a forum with a monumental temple are also identifiable. The temple is believed to date to the late 1st century A.D., and the reign of the Flavian emperors. Statues of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius have been discovered here, leading to the identification of this temple as being dedicated to the imperial cult. Finds from Aenona are housed in both the local museum in Nin, and at the Archaeological Museum in Zadar.

Remains of a monumental temple at Aenona. Full album: Link.

Reconstruction of the temple at Aenona. Full album: Link.

The ancient Aenona also hosts today a nice Museum where one can see remains of ancient ships.

Ancient ships in the City Museum of Nin. Full album: Link.

Another attraction is the picturesque Church of the Holy Cross, which dates to the 9th Century AD.

Church of the Holy Cross. Nin. Full album: Link.

The ancient Harbor of Colentum

Colentum is an ancient Libourno-Roman harbour located on the island of Murter. Most of it is below the sea level, which was some 1.5 m lower in antiquity. Interesting fact: today the sea level is higher mostly because of the continuing post-glacial crust rebound, and not because of any ice meltdown…

Harbor of Colentum. Full album: Link.

Not much is left of the ancient Colentum, excepting a few picturesque walls washed by sea waves.

Harbor of Colentum. Full album: Link.

There are also some visible remains of ancient houses on the slope of the hill overlooking the harbor.

Ancient houses of Colentum. Full album: Link.

Libournian Fortress of Asseria

The small Croatian village of Podgrade is the site of an ancient hillfort settlement called Asseria. The home of the Asseriates tribe in pre-Roman times, it became a military post under the Romans during the first century AD. The presence of the Romans promoted the development of Asseria as a center of trade and commerce and, probably during the reign of Claudius, it acquired the status of a municipium.

Fortress of Asseria. Fortification walls. Full album: Link.

Surviving features of ancient Asseria include parts of the pre-Roman walls and a triumphal arch dating to AD 113, during the reign of the emperor Trajan. Archaeologists have also unearthed the forum and what is thought to be a basilica. Finds from the site are preserved in the Archaeological Museum in Zadar.

Fortress of Asseria. One of the entrance gates. Full album: Link.

Fortress of Asseria. Cylindrical gravestones – “cipus”. Full album: Link.

Breberium – Varvaria – Bribir

Located on the Bribirska Glavica hilltop, this spectacular and very rich archaeological site was first a Liburnian site, then a roman fortress transformed into a Croatian medieval stronghold. The hill is so rich in history that it is sometimes called “Croatia’s Troy”.

Bribirska Glavica hilltop. Ancint fortress. Full album: Link.

The site is being actively explored by archaeologists – a very informative website is dedicated to the excavations http://www.varvaria-breberium-bribir.org

Museum at the archaeological site of Bribir. Full album: Link.

Besides its historical interest, Breberium offers splendid views over the surrounding valley.

Scenic views on the road to Breberium. Full album: Link.

Velika Mrdakovica – Liburian and Roman site

This fortified liburnian site was founded on the top of the hill in the 7th century BC and remained occupied until the end of the 2nd century AD.  The site is sometimes associates with the ancient Arauzona (Arausa), but this attribution remains uncertain. Remains of the ancient fortified walls and houses can be seen and visited on the slopes of the hill.

Velika Mrdakovica – Liburian and Roman site. Full album: Link.

Velika Mrdakovica – Liburian and Roman site. Full album: Link.

Split Archaeological Museum

The Archaeological Museum in Split requires some renovation, and many spectacular finds are exhibited outside of the main building, exposed to weather and air pollution.

Split Archaeological Museum. Full album: Link.

However, the place definitely deserves a visit. Here are a few highlights form the Museum collection.

Split Archaeological Museum. Gallery. Full album: Link.

This is a sarcophagus dated to 260 AD, produced by an Athenian workshop in ancient Salona. It is decorated with erotes climbing vine tendrils.

Split Archaeological Museum. Sarcophagus produced by an Athenian workshop. Full album: Link.

This a mosaic panel with Orpheus and Animals from the Dalmatia Governor’s house in Salona. It is dated to the end of the 2nd century and is one of the prize objects of the Museum collection.

Split Archaeological Museum. Mosaic representing Orpheus and Animals, from the Dalmatia Governor’s house in Salona.  Full album: Link.

Sibenik City Museum

The city of Sibeik didn’t keep many traces of its Roman past, but its City Museum hosts a rich exhibition of ancient finds from the area. A few highlights are presented below.

Sibenik City Museum. Full album: Link.

This snail-shaped glass rhyton was found in 2011 at Velika Mrdakovica in Croatia. It was made by blowing glass into a mould with later addition of details. Only 18 such rhyta including this one were found.

Sibenik City Museum. Snail-shaped glass rhyton found at Velika Mrdakovica. Full album: Link.

Because of its property to electrify by rubbing, Amber was attributed magical powers. Romans believed that it protected from disease & bad dreams. Amber rings were not worn on fingers, but hung around the neck. This ring was found in Skradin and is now part of the Sibenik City Museum collection.

Sibenik City Museum. Amber ring. Full album: Link.

Zadar Archeological Museum

The Archaeological Museum of Zarar has a very rich collection of finds.

Zadar Archeological Museum. Marble head of a priest. Full album: Link.

Zadar Archeological Museum. One of the many oil lamps in the Museum collection. Full album: Link.

One of the main highlights of the collection is the Augustus statue found in ancient Aenona (Nin) in 1777 with seven other statues. Three of them are now in the Zadar Archaeological museum. The second statue is of Tiberius, and the third is headless, but was possibly representing Julius Caesar.

Zadar Archeological Museum. Statue of Tiberius. Full album: Link.

The Augustus statue is even more interesting that it first appears. It is actually a Caligula heroic statue, which was recut into a copy of Augustus Prima Porta type. The heroic statue of Caligula was that of Jupiter. Its head is made from a single block of marble and you may notice that the recarved head of Augustus is too small compared to the corona civica.

Zadar Archeological Museum. Augustus statue recut from Caligula’s. Full album: Link.

Zadar Museum of Ancient Glass

The Zadar Museum of Ancient Glass is certainly one of the main “hidden gems” on the Dalmatian coast. Its stunning collection is one of the biggest surprises I had so far during my trip along the Dalmatian Coast in Croatia.

Glass vessel in the shape of a fish. Full album: Link.

The museum is dedicated to the ancient glass found in different areas of the ancient Dalmatia. The collection starts with some unique pieces, including a multi-color cup, a glass portrait of Empress Livia and a glass phalera with a portrait of Tiberius.

Multi-color cup. Full album: Link.

Glass portrait of Empress Livia. Full album: Link.

Glass phalera with a portrait of Tiberius. Full album: Link.

An entire museum room is dedicated to the glass tableware: several complete glass table sets can be seen in different colors.

Roman glass tableware. Full album: Link.

Glass jewels are of special interest: even some hair pins were preserved.

Roman glass hair pin. Full album: Link.

Funerary glass urns are very numerous. It is understandable why they are often intact: they were put inside of bigger stone urns, which kept them protected.

Funerary glass urns. Full album: Link.

Other beautiful highlights of the collection include cups with inscriptions, a corn-shaped drinking cup (rhyton) and numerous balsamaria, some of which have fancy shape – such as an amphora or a date.

Balsamarium. Full album: Link.

Ancient Dalmatia on TimeTravelRome

Most of the text in this article is coming from Timetravelrome – our app dedicated to the ancient Roman Empire. The App allows finding all most interesting travel destinations across the whole Roman Empire, including the Dalmatian coast of Croatia.

Nijmegen is by far the most important location of Roman Netherlands. This is where the Roman era of the Netherlands began with the arrival of two legions in 19 BCE. The Romans also built here the first, oldest and biggest city of the Netherlands, Ulpia Noviomagus. Nijmegen played an important role as a military, administrative, economic and logistic center in the direct hinterland of the Limes.

Ulpia Noviomagus History

In the long period of five centuries of Roman times the appearance of Nijmegen changed drastically several times. At first sight, this makes the story of Nijmegen somewhat confusing – everywhere there are remains from various periods – but this is precisely why it is so special and interesting. Moreover, there is still a lot of information hidden in the ground, waiting to be discovered.

The Valkhof hill has played an important role in Roman Nijmegen in two periods. In the early Roman period, from about 12 BC, Oppidum Batavorum was situated here, the capital of the district of the Batavians. The name literally means ‘fortified place of the Batavians’. In the year 70, the Batavian rebel leader Julius Civilis set fire to the town. After that, a completely new capital arose in Nijmegen-West (Noviomagus).

Roman city of Ulpia Noviamagus. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Noviomagus in Nijmegen-West ceased to exist around 300 of our era and the population concentrated again around the Valkhof. To this end, the Romans built a stone fort or castellum at the Valkhof. This late-Roman castellum probably also served as accommodation for the emerging Frankish elite in the 5th and 6th centuries. It marks the gradual transition from the Roman empire to the Frankish empire – and eventually the empire of Charlemagne, who converted the castellum on the Valkhof into one of his palaces.

Nijmegen-West (Ulpia Noviomagus)

Ulpia Noviomagus is by far the oldest and largest Roman city in the Netherlands. The population in the second century AD is estimated at 5,000 to 7,000. In the urban life, the multicultural society along the Limes reached its dynamic peak: here, different population groups, peoples and races lived and worked together.

Noviomagus in the 2nd century AD. By JPh Moutschen – Own work, based on a map from the DVD: Free Software Foundation Europe, Free Layers (licensed under GFDL)., CC BY-SA 3.0.

Little is known of the city itself: less than 10% has been archaeologically investigated. For example, it is not yet clear where the western and northern boundaries were. Currently, the heart of the Roman city is being overbuilt with new housing. The remains of monumental buildings such as the forum, a temple and the public baths are located right here.

The city was probably founded around the year 70, as a successor to the burned Oppidum Batavorum. On the initiative of Emperor Traianus, the construction of the city got off to a good start. Public, monumental buildings arose, such as a forum and a large bathhouse. Around the city there were extensive burial grounds. The city of Ulpia Noviomagus existed until about 300. After that, the habitation concentrated itself around the Valkhof again.

Nijmegen-East (castra)

The Hunerberg in Nijmegen-East is the only place in the Netherlands where a Roman legion had a permanent base. To make things more complicated: this happened twice in different time periods. The first time was in the time of Emperor Augustus, around 19 B.C. It probably involved two legions, about 12,000 men. After a few years Commander-in-Chief Drusus needed his legionnaires elsewhere and they left Nijmegen.

The army camp remained unoccupied for more than 80 years, until the Tenth Gemina Legion settled here. The 10th Legion had come marching from Spain in the year 70 to quell the last remnants of the Batavian Revolt. After the Batavian Revolt Emperor Vespasian left the legion behind in Nijmegen, partly to keep an eye on the Batavians, but mainly to rebuild the Lime Fortresses on the Rhine. The construction of roads and quays made it easier to supply them. Around 103 the legion left for Aquincum, today’s Budapest in Hungary.

Nijmegen-Kops Plateau

The Romans built a fort on the Kops Plateau around 12 BC, at the same time or shortly after the legions left for the Hunerberg. The function of the fort is not entirely clear: it was too small to house large numbers of soldiers, but it did have a few monumental buildings. Most archaeologists therefore suspect a central command post of the Roman army. In the years around 30 of our era the fortress was used as a staging post for horsemen, possibly from the Ala I Batavorum, the Batavian cavalry. Thus, the fort also became part of the Limes. During the Batavian Revolt in 69-70 it was abandoned and no longer in use. Today, two-thirds of the site has been excavated, making it one of the best-researched early Roman forts in north-western Europe.

Museum Het Valkhof

Museum Het Valkhof has an extensive collection of archaeological finds from Nijmegen and the province of Gelderland. They give a picture of human life in the region, from the Old Stone Age, Roman times, Middle Ages up to and including the 19th century.

• Unique Roman artefacts

Because of their quality and diversity, Roman archaeological finds belong to the top of Dutch cultural heritage. For four centuries, Nijmegen was the largest and most important Roman settlement in the Netherlands. The countless finds from that time show how soldiers and civilians lived here.

Roman cavalry mask. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Front part of a roman cavalry mask. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Same cavalry mask restored (a reconstruction). Photo by Michel Gybels.

Roman glass vessel. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Highlights are the limestone pillar of the gods from the beginning of the era, the face helmets from the first century and many masterpieces of arts and crafts from Roman graves from the first to the fourth century.

Triumphal column of TIB(e)R(ius) C(ae)SAR, comprised of at four blocks. Depicted are (from left to right): Tiberius being crowned by Victoria, whilst making a sacrifice by pouring wine onto an altar. Left. Apollo Back. Ceres Right. Diana. The figure in the Phrygian Cap is taken to be Bacchus Ca 15 AD. Found in Nijmegen, in front of the museum itself in 1980. Museum Het Valkhof, Nijmegen.  By Kleuske – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Some unique objects from the Roman period come from outside Nijmegen and the Gelderland river area: the bronze portrait head of Emperor Trajan from Xanten, the silver drinking cup (kantharos) from Stevensweert and the bronze shield knob from Blerick.

Roman silver cup. By Wolfgang Sauber – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Bust of Hadrian. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Valkhof Museum is open until September 2022, after which it will close for a long time for renovation works. The intention is to modernise the museum and adapt it to contemporary standards such as multimedia presentations and digital applications.

Museum Het Valkhof. By Ellywa – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Source of the featured picture: Compilation from photos taken by Carole Raddato.