Our friend and TimeTravel Rome author Michel Gybels has been involved in this collaborative effort since its launch – you might remember our post about the project kickoff one year ago. Now, we’re excited to share the key achievements from their research, highlighted in the report called “The Roman North Sea Region – A Resource Assessment and Research Questions“, released in December 2024. More information can be found on the website of the project: https://bridgingthenorthsea.org

Header page of the Report, Dec 2024

Project Scope: A Network Across the Waters

The project looked at how the Roman Empire used the North Sea and Channel coastlines to create an interconnected world of trade, military power, and cultural exchange. The research covers roughly 55 BCE (when Julius Caesar first crossed to Britain) to around 410 CE (when Roman rule in Britain ended).

What’s different about this project is its cross-border approach. Instead of studying these coastal regions separately, researchers have combined their knowledge to see how sites across four modern countries once functioned as parts of a single, complex maritime network. Some of the key highlights of this unique work are summarized below.

The Roman Coastal Landscape

The coastline during Roman times was dramatically different from today. In many places, what is now dry land was once open water, while other areas now underwater were once thriving settlements.

For instance, the Wantsum Channel in Kent once separated the Isle of Thanet from mainland Britain, creating a navigable waterway that Roman ships used regularly. Archaeological evidence shows that Richborough, at the southern end of this channel, served as a major port of entry and supply base. Today, this ancient seaway lies buried beneath agricultural fields, its course marked by earthen sea walls and drainage channels.

The Wantsum Channel at time of the Romans. P 135 of the Report, Dec 2024.

Similarly, in what is now Flanders, the coastline has retreated significantly. The Roman coastal fort of Oudenburg, which once overlooked the sea, now sits over 8 kilometers inland. This dramatic change highlights how dynamic these coastal environments were and the challenges they posed to Roman engineers and sailors.

Schematic reconstruction of the coastal plain during the mid-Roman period. Red line: the current coastline; black line: border of the coastal plain in the Roman period. P 20 of the Report, Dec 2024.

Military Infrastructure

The project has documented a network of forts, harbors, and lighthouses that allowed Rome to maintain control over this maritime frontier. These installations weren’t randomly placed but formed a coherent defensive and logistical system.

Confirmed and possible Roman military installations along the coast of the Netherlands, Belgium and France. P 37 of the Report, Dec 2024.

At Dover (Portus Dubris), traces of harbor works, two lighthouses, and a fort of the Classis Britannica (British Fleet) reveal how the Romans engineered this natural harbor for military and trade purposes. Across the water at Boulogne-sur-Mer (Gesoriacum), a similar arrangement with lighthouses and a substantial harbor installation mirrors the setup at Dover, emphasizing the importance of the Dover Strait crossing.

Dover Castle and the Roman Lighthouse, By Michael Coppins – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Further north, at South Shields (Arbeia) near the mouth of the River Tyne, a fort was specially redesigned around 198 CE to serve as a supply base for Hadrian’s Wall, with numerous granaries for storing goods delivered by sea. The project has highlighted how these coastal installations were integral to the functioning of Hadrian’s Wall, connecting this frontier to the wider imperial supply network.

Material Culture: The Goods That Moved

Perhaps the most tangible evidence of connectivity comes from the artifacts that were transported across the North Sea. The project’s analysis of material culture has revealed shifting patterns of exchange that reflect broader historical developments.

During the early Roman period (43-165 CE), large quantities of pottery, especially terra sigillata tableware from southern Gaul, were imported into Britain. Metal goods, coins, olive oil in amphorae, and wine also crossed the Channel in considerable volumes. The Pudding Pan Rock site off the Kent coast, where hundreds of pottery vessels have been recovered from what may be multiple shipwrecks, exemplifies this busy trade.

Group of Roman samian ware pottery from Pudding Pan Rock. Source: Ashmolean Museum.

Interestingly, the research shows that the volume of cross-Channel exchange declined significantly after the mid-2nd century, possibly due to the combined effects of the Antonine Plague (165-180 CE) and the Marcomannic Wars that destabilized parts of the empire. At the same time, however, there was an increase in Roman goods moving into the northern Netherlands, suggesting that imperial subsidies paid to Germanic tribes were reshaping trade networks.

By the late Roman period (260-409 CE), the nature of cross-Channel exchange had fundamentally changed. Britain was exporting agricultural products to supply the Rhine legions, while importing far fewer manufactured goods. This shift from a consumer to a producer reflects the evolving economic role of Britain within the empire.

The Human Factor: Travelers Across the Sea

Beyond the infrastructure and artifacts, the project has begun to identify individuals who traveled across the North Sea, putting human faces to this maritime connectivity. Inscriptions, tombstones, and written records preserve the names of merchants, soldiers, officials, and others who made these journeys.

One notable example is L. Viducius Placidus, a merchant from the Rouen area in France, who is known from inscriptions both at Domburg in the Netherlands and at York in Britain, where he constructed an arch and temple. Such evidence demonstrates that individual businesspeople could operate across multiple provinces, maintaining networks that spanned the North Sea.

Dedicatory inscription made in York by Lucius Viducius Placidus. Source: https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/3195

Military personnel were also frequently on the move. A tombstone at South Shields commemorates Regina, a British woman who had married Barates, a merchant from Palmyra in Syria. Another records Victor, a Moorish tribesman who had traveled from North Africa to serve in the Roman forces in northern Britain.

These personal stories bring to life the cosmopolitan nature of the Roman North Sea world, where people from across the empire might meet and interact in bustling ports and frontier settlements.

A Landscape Under Threat

Many Roman coastal sites are now threatened by modern coastal processes and climate change. At East Wear Bay in Folkestone, a Roman villa site continues to erode as the cliff face retreats. At Reculver on the north Kent coast, much of the Roman fort has already been lost to the sea.

The Roman villa at East Wear Bay in the 1940s. The yellow line represents the current cliff edge which is progressing northwards. P 141 of the Report, Dec 2024.

In the Medway estuary, Roman industrial sites on low-lying islands are being submerged as sea levels rise, while in the Netherlands, several coastal forts have entirely disappeared beneath the waves due to coastal erosion. The project is highlighting the urgent need to document these vulnerable sites before they are lost forever.

Looking Forward: Future Research Directions

As the “Bridging the North Sea” project moves into its second year, several key research priorities have emerged:

1. Developing better mapping of Roman coastal landscapes: Creating GIS-based maps that can evolve as understanding improves
2. Synthesizing fragmented research: Bringing together the results of numerous small-scale investigations to build a comprehensive picture
3. Fostering cross-disciplinary collaboration: Working with geologists, climate scientists, and maritime specialists to understand the ancient North Sea environment
4. Sharing methodologies: Developing approaches to investigate difficult-to-access Roman landscapes that lie buried or submerged
5. Building international collaboration: Strengthening networks across the North Sea to address shared research questions

One interesting proposal is for a “flagship” experimental archaeology project that would involve constructing a Roman-era vessel, potentially with teams working on different sides of the North Sea. Such a project could provide valuable insights into the capabilities of Roman ships while engaging the public across the region.

The Untold Stories of Industry: Salt, Pottery, and More

One area that deserves more attention is the industrial activities that took place along these Roman coastlines. The project has begun to document how the Romans exploited coastal resources to fuel their economy, particularly in industries like salt production and pottery manufacturing.

In Kent, over 60 Roman salt-manufacturing sites have been identified, particularly concentrated in the north and north-west of the county. These salt works were strategically positioned to take advantage of tidal flows and sea access for transportation. The production process involved evaporating seawater in large clay containers (briquetage) over hearths, creating mounds of industrial waste that are still visible in some marshland areas.

Similarly, the project has identified more than 50 pottery manufacturing sites in Kent, many located in the north Kent marshes where they could benefit from both the necessary raw materials and easy access to water transport. Black Burnished Ware, produced in large quantities along both sides of the Thames Estuary from the mid-2nd to mid-3rd century, represents one of the major pottery industries. These vessels were widely distributed, including to Hadrian’s Wall, suggesting they may have been used to transport salt or other goods.

Map of Roman Kent showing the location of key sites. P.16 of the Report, Dec 2024.

In Flanders, salt-making was also of considerable economic importance during the Roman period. Finds of briquetage pottery indicate that salt was being produced at several locations spread throughout the coastal plain, always near active tidal inlets. Recent research has shown that the salt industry evolved from small-scale household production to a more industrial scale operation using batteries of up to 15 simultaneously operating furnaces.

The economic networks that supported these industries were complex. Salt was a valuable commodity, essential for food preservation and likely traded widely. Pottery production sites like those at East Chalk near Gravesend seem to have been entire settlements dedicated to manufacturing, with multiple kilns operating alongside domestic structures and small cemeteries.

These industrial landscapes represent an important aspect of North Sea connectivity. The products made in these coastal workshops traveled far and wide through Roman trading networks, while the technologies and skills needed for these industries may have crossed the sea with specialist workers. Studying these industries gives us a different perspective on connectivity – not just of elites and military forces, but of everyday economic life and the movement of essential commodities.

A Connected Past, A Connected Future

The “Bridging the North Sea” project reminds us that the divisions between countries that seem so natural today are relatively recent constructs. For the Romans, the North Sea was not a barrier but a highway that connected regions now split between four modern nations.

By studying this shared maritime heritage collaboratively, the project is not only enhancing our understanding of the past but also strengthening international connections in the present. As research continues, we can expect even more insights into how the Roman Empire created one of the first truly integrated North Sea regions, establishing patterns of connectivity that, in many ways, continue to shape the area today.

This ancient maritime network, with its ports, forts, ships, and travelers, represents an important chapter in the history of North Sea connectivity—one that resonates with our modern world of international trade and cross-border collaboration.

Source of the featured image: Artist’s impression: the port of Boulogne and the estuary in the 2nd century Cl. Seillier and P. Knoblock (2004) – archives of the archaeology service. Page 158 of the Report.

The Romans first made direct contact with Britain in the middle of the 1^st century BC, when Julius Caesar invaded in 55 and 54 BC. Rome’s most famous general believed that the island’s native Celtic people had been providing support to the Gauls in France, against whom he was waging the war that would secure his fame. Within a century, Britain itself would go from being shrouded in mystery to invaded by the Roman armies and incorporated into the Empire.

The century between Julius Caesar’s first invasion and the Emperor Claudius’ decisive imperial invasion in 43 BC, much of the Roman world had undergone tremendous change. The Republic was dead, ended by a period of protracted civil wars and the vast territories of Empire, from northern Europe to the edges of Asia Minor, were now ruled by a single emperor. Nevertheless, aspects of Roman society and culture endured and evolved, untroubled by these blood-soaked political turbulences.

The general appearance of Roman civilisation, how the empire looked to the people that called it home, was remarkably similar across its enormous expanse. The Roman villa, the opulent country adobe, was to be found right across the Roman territories. Even in Britain, on the very edges of the Empire, the countryside was dotted with these icons of Roman civilisation.

Here are 7 of the best Roman villas that you can still explore in Britain today:

1/ Chedworth Roman Villa – Home of the Nymphs

Found in the county of Gloucestershire in western England, the Roman villa at Chedworth is actually one of the largest ever discovered in the country. Believed to have been built in around about 120 AD, as the Roman Empire was entering its Golden Age under the auspices of the Five Good Antonine Emperors, archaeological work shows that the villa was built up in stages. The occupants of the villa, as well as being wealthy, would likely have been well connected with Roman Britain: the villa is situated just a little way from the main Roman road in Britain, the Fosse Way, whilst it is close to both the city of Corinum Dobunnorum (modern Cirencester) and the town of Glevum (Gloucester).

Chedworth Roman Villa -View from northeast. By Pasicles – Own work, CC0.

The villa reached its peak in the 4^th century AD, at which time it appears to have fully embraced the trappings of an aristocratic residence. As well as the already large bathing complex (built in the 3^rd century), during this time a significant portion of the northern wing was converted to become an additional bathing suite (including laconicum, or dry heat baths), whilst the triclinium (dining room) was at this point ornamented with the fantastic mosaic decoration that one can still see today despite the villa falling into ruin in the 5^th century.

Any villa that has two bathing complexes clearly has exceptional water access, and Chedworth was actually built on the site of a natural spring. This appears to have become a central feature of the site, and a Nymphaeum – a pool and fountain complex – was built in the northwest of the villa. This was originally dedicate to the water-nymphs who dwelt in the spring waters, but over time its function appears to have changed as a Christian chi-rho symbol was discovered scratched into the rock here.

Today, visitors can explore the remains of the nymphaeum and villa, which are well maintained and presented. The mosaics in particular are well worth exploring, and information about the villa is presented in the excellent Visitor Centre on site. You can further explore Roman Chedworth too – less than 1km from the villa the foundations of a large Romano-British temple have been uncovered. Some of the smaller finds contained at the Villa’s museum come from this site, including a stone carving of a hunting deity accompanied by their dog and stag.

Link to some official information: https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/chedworth-roman-villa

2/ Great Witcombe Roman Villa – Home is where the Bath is

Also located in Gloucestershire in the west of England, Great Witcombe villa is believed to date to the 1^st century AD, making it slightly earlier than its Chedworth counterpart. It too, however, appears to have been destroyed or abandoned in the 5^th century. This is where the similarities end however, as Great Witcombe Villa is markedly different to other contemporary structures. For one it was built over four terraces to offset the challenges presented by the awkward terrain. This may have impacted the layout of the villa too, which is highly irregular for a residential building.

Roman Villa, Great Witcombe. By Robert Powell, CC BY-SA 3.0.

The villa is recorded as being in excellent condition upon its first excavation in the 19^th century. However, modern visitors have been somewhat let down by the poor conservation practices of the Victorians, which means that the heavy English rains have washed away many of the plastered walls that were originally still standing. Nevertheless, the low walls and foundations that are still standing give a good impression of the shape and size of the complex, whilst certain features in particular remain very interesting. For one, the villa was – like Chedworth again – well serviced by water. The remains of both the bath house and parts of its marine-life mosaic decoration, and the latrine are excellent here, with the hypocaust heating system notable for its state of preservation. A small room with niched walls is believed to have fulfilled a religious role, perhaps as a shrine. Also of note is the Octagonal room, an unusual feature dating to the 4^th century AD.

3/ Littlecote Roman Villa – A home for Orpheus

Found in the village of Ramsbury in the southern county of Wiltshire, the Littlecote Roman Villa appears to have been a site of profound change over the course of the Roman occupation of Britain. The settlement likely began as a small, temporary military encampment, located to guard the River Kennet. Over the years of occupation however, and the gradual decrease in need for military presence (in the south of Britain at least), it developed into a more peaceful site, with evidence of food manufacturing found here, including baking ovens and grinding stones from around 70 AD to 120 AD.

Littlecote Roman Villa, the Orpheus mosaic. By Przemysław JahrAutorem. Public Domain.

Over the course of the 2^nd century however, this small site developed again, becoming a large two-story villa, with the typical wings and bathing suite. For some reason that is not clear, a major rebuilding was required in the late 3^rd century – perhaps in relation to the chaos that afflicted the western empire more generally at this time. Regardless, the mosaics that can still be seen in the villa remain some of the best to be seen in Britain; colourful, ornate, and rich in narrative details.

Numismatic evidence from the site indicates that in the mid-4^th century underwent its most profound change; agricultural production appears to have ceased, with the site acquiring a religious function. One of the original barns from the agricultural villa was converted into a courtyard whilst an exceptionally early triconch hall – a space for religious worship – was built next to the bathing complex and ornamented with the villa’s famous Orpheus mosaic. Interpretation of the mosaic remains contested – and frequently includes not only Orpheus, but figures such as Bacchus and Apollo. This would place the mosaic seemingly out of time in a rapidly Christianising empire, leading some to suggest that the mosaic belongs to the era of Julian the Apostate, the notorious last pagan emperor, who attempted to motivate a pagan revival (361-363 AD).

4/ Brading Roman Villa – Home of the Cockerel Conundrum

Off the southern coast of Britain is the Isle of Wight, and here one can explore the site of Brading Roman Villa with its excellent modern museum and visitor centre. Although not as big as other villas on this list, the example at brading displays many of the typical features of Roman villa architecture, including the central courtyard.

Brading Roman Villa. By Nilfanion – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

The Isle of Wight was brought under Roman control by the future-emperor Vespasian in the years of the Claudian invasion (ca.44 AD), and the first phase of the villa dates to around this time. This would suggest that Roman cultural values and styles found a ready audience amongst the natives. Over the coming century, the villa would be developed substantially into an impressive and opulent example of Roman residential culture transported to the edges of the Empire. Despite a devastating fire in the 3^rd century – possibly linked to raids during the 3^rd century crisis – Brading remained occupied well into the latest periods of Roman control in Britain. For instance, coins have been found that indicate that it was occupied until at least the reign of the Emperor Honorious in 395 AD.

Although it collapsed in the 5^th century AD, the remains of the villa are still in reasonably good condition and are today expertly maintained undercover at the on-site Exhibition and Visitor Centre. The overall size and layout of the villa remains readily identifiable, whilst the real attraction of the site is undoubtedly the exquisite mosaic decorations. These include subjects as diverse as Orpheus, Bacchus, gladiators, and the mystery of the cockerel-headed man. Quite who this chicken headed figure is meant to represent remains contested with theories as diverse as the gnostic deity Abraxas, a gladiator called Gallus, or even the Emperor Constantius Gallus! Away from all of these, of course, it could just be nonsense, but this would somewhat detract from the richness of the other decoration.

5/ Fishbourne Roman Palace – A Home fit for a King?

We’ve covered Fishbourne Palace here at TimeTravel Rome before: it really is one of the best Roman sites that can be explored in Britain today. This palatial complex can be found in Chichester, West Sussex, on Britain’s south coast. Dating to around 75 AD, Fishbourne Villa is the largest residential building from the Roman era to have ever been uncovered in the UK, and indeed, it is the largest ever found north of the Alps – whoever lived here was seriously rich!

The garden at Fishbourne Roman Palace in Sussex. By mattbuck – Own work by mattbuck., CC BY-SA 4.0.

When it was originally excavated, it was suggested that this was once the home of the pre-Roman chieftain Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus. King Cogidubnus would likely have been allowed to remain in his esteemed position in the south of Britain by becoming a client-king for the Romans. Although recent archaeological debates have focused on whether the villa actually belonged to Sallustius Lucullus – a governor in the late 1^st century AD who would be murdered by Domitian – this sprawling residence is certainly fit for king.

The famous Cupid mosaic at Fishbourne Roman Palace in Sussex. By mattbuck – Own work by mattbuck., CC BY-SA 4.0.

The design and decoration, which features some exquisite and well-preserved mosaics, indicate just how quickly a recognisably Roman residential culture was adopted and expanded in Britain. Indeed, in both scale and shape, the villa at Fishbourne actually closely resembles contemporary imperial palaces in Rome, including the Domus Aurea of Nero, and the Domus Flavia of Domitian. Britain was clearly not the provincial backwater that some would have you believe!

Link to official information: http://sussexpast.co.uk/properties-to-discover/fishbourne-roman-palace

6/ Bignor Roman Villa – Gladiators and Gorgons

Just to the north east of Chichester (called Noviomagus Reginorum by the Romans) in West Sussex, one can explore some of the UK’s most excellently preserved and intricate ancient mosaic decoration at Bignor Roman Villa. Although smaller than the nearby Fishbourne Villa, the typical courtyard villa at Bignor is still well worth discovering.This villa appears to be quite a bit older than its neighbour at Fishbourne. Whilst the larger villa dates to the second half of the 1^st century AD, the earliest structural finds from Bignor date to the last decade of the 2^nd century (ca. 190 AD). At this point in time, the structure was a simple timber farm dwelling. It wasn’t until the mid-3^rd century that the site appears to have undergone development, with the construction of a larger stone building. This more permanent structure was developed over the course of the century, with the additions of new rooms, a portico, and a hypocaust system to provide heating to the structure.

Bignor Roman Villa. By Poliphilo – Own work, CC0.

Bignor however is best associated with its mosaic ornamentation, and these date to the last phase of construction detectable at the site, in the first half of the 4^th century (300-350 AD), by which point the villa is believed to have had some 65 rooms. The mosaics are located in these most recent structures which comprised an expansion of the northern wing of the villa. The subjects of the mosaics vary, acting almost as a who’s who of the ancient imagination with gladiators and gorgons amongst the characters depicted. There is also a simple geometric patterned mosaic in the northern corridor – featuring a Greek-key pattern – that measures 79ft, making it the longest mosaic in Britain. One thing that can be said with certainty is that whoever commissioned these scenes for their home was clearly considerable wealthy!

Mosaics at Bignor Roman Villa in Sussex. By mattbuck – Own work by mattbuck., CC BY-SA 4.0.

Link to the official website: https://www.bignorromanvilla.co.uk

7/ Lullingstone Roman Villa – Home of an Emperor?

Found near the village of Eynsford in Kent, in Eastern Britain, Lullingstone Roman Villa dates to the last decades of the 1^st century AD (between 80 and 90 AD). The original occupants of the villa are unknown, but the size and wealth of the material recovered would suggest that they were either rich Romans, amongst the first to arrive from the Empire, or perhaps native Britons who keenly adopted Roman cultural practices. It appears to have been sited to enjoy the benefits offered by Watling Street, which connected Verulamium (modern St Albans) with Viroconium (modern Wroxeter, and one of the must-see Roman sites in Britain).

Lullingstone Roman Villa. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Some time in the mid-2^nd century, the villa at Lullingstone was expanded significantly. A heated bath block, fuelled by a hypocaust system, was added. Two marble busts have been recovered from this period. It has been suggested that these depicted the residents of the villa, which may actually have served as the country retreat of the provincial governors who managed the imperial province on behalf of the emperor. Most intriguingly, there is evidence to suggest that these busts actually depict Publius Helvius Pertinax, who was governor of Britain in 185-86 and his father. These busts would connect the villa of Lullingstone, in the far corners of the Empire, with the very heart of Rome’s imperial history; by 193 AD, Pertinax himself was to become emperor, replaced the depraved Commodus, who was assassinated by his Praetorians. These busts are now kept in the British Museum, and serve to remind of how Emperors could be found at even the furthest edges of the Empire.

Sometime in the 3^rd century, the villa was again expanded, so that the grounds now included an expanded bath house, a granary, and a structure that has been identified as a temple-mausoleum. The temple-mausoleum is one aspect of a colourful spiritual history for this villa. One room in the complex was used as a pagan shrine – dedicated to, and decorated by, local water deities. However, come the 4^th century, the room above the original pagan shrine was converted into a space for Christian worship. The decorations in this room, including fresco paintings that depict a row of worshippers and a typical Christian chi-rho symbol. Although some of these are now displayed in the British Museum, they nevertheless represent that only known examples of Christian painting from Roman-era Britain. Visitors to the villa and the British Museum cannot help but be reminded of the complex spiritual landscape that was the reality of life in the Roman Empire.

Header picture source: Chedworth Roman Villa, museum and custodian’s house. By Tony Grist – Photographer’s own files, Public Domain.

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Humble Origins

Like countless other cities in the Empire, Eboracum had humble origins. Founded in 71 AD by the General Quintus Petillius Cerialis and the Ninth Legion, to begin with it was little more than a castra, a military encampment. Positioned near the River Ouse’s junction with the River Foss, the castra was heavily fortified with essential transport links for the movement of people, goods, and news.

As a castra, Eboracum followed the standard layout that was used across the Roman empire. This initially meant wooden buildings within a square perimeter of defensive ramparts.  Archaeological evidence from the site however indicates Eboracum was progressively refined over time, reflecting its growth in stature: turf ramparts on wooden foundations were very quickly replaced with wooden battlements and limestone walls and towers.

Rise

However, with a legion numbering some 5,500 soldiers, local people soon began to migrate towards the castra, drawn by the trading opportunities. This led to civilian settlements beginning to establish themselves around the castra. As Roman expansion pushed further north, and these conquests consolidated guaranteeing the security of Eboracum, its expansion accelerated.

The most famous general in the history of Roman Britain, Agricola, was responsible for the total refurbishment of the castra in around 81 AD during his campaigns in the north of Britain. It was shortly after this, in the early years of the second century during the reign of the Emperor Trajan, that the camp was totally rebuilt in stone, confirming the prominence of this burgeoning fortress.

Thanks to its position on the confluence of the rivers, Eboracum flourished as a busy port, whilst its proximity to the imperial frontier – the Limes – meant that soldiers from all over the Empire passed through the burgeoning city during the imperial period. Thanks to this, ancient Eboracum became increasingly cosmopolitan, as the disparate strands of imperial culture mingled in the north of Britain. This is most clearly seen in great extent of religious beliefs that mingled here. Archaeological evidence recovered from Eboracum has thrown up a wealth of fascinating material that indicates just how diverse the Roman Empire was, and how freely and seemingly openly ideas and people moved around its vast spaces.

There is, as you would expect, a wealth of material that indicates the popularity of the deities of the traditional Roman pantheon. Altars to Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Hercules, and Fortune have all been discovered. Yet there is evidence that these occupied a religious consciousness alongside local and regional deities, as well as other more exotic gods. The eastern sun-cult of Mithras also seemingly flourished here, with a tauroctony relief panel being discovered in Micklegate. This depiction of the eastern god – always easily identifiable by his pointed phyrgian cap – slaying the bull suggests that the mystery cult was flourishing here, likely brought to these far reaches of the Empire by the army.

Although now worn with age, this Mithraic tauroctony scene discovered in Micklegate indicates the existence of the mystery cult in north Britain. The central figure of Mithras is identifiable, cutting the throat of the bull. His iconic phyrgian cap is just about visible here.

However, the most well-known example of the mingling of religious cultures in the Roman Empire is evidenced in the existence of a well-established cult of Serapis. This Egyptian god, who was popularised initially by the Hellenic Ptolemaic dynasty in an attempt to engender cultural harmony, was believed to be connected to the sun, fertility, healing, and the afterlife more generally. In the late 18^th century, a priceless piece of evidence was uncovered in Toft Green. A dedication inscription, recorded the construction of a temple to Serapis, by Claudius Hieronymianus, the legate of the Sixth Legion who were stationed in the north of Britain in the early years of the 3^rd century AD. It is believed that the temple was built in preparation for the arrival of the Emperor Septimius Severus, who arrived in Britain in 208 AD to wage war against the tribes beyond the border.

Measuring almost a metre in width, this inscription provides us with a fascinating glimpse into the cultural cosmopolitanism of the ancient Empire. The inscription says: ‘Deo sancto Serapi templum a solo fecit Cl(audius) Hieronymous leg(atus) leg(ionis) VI Vic(tris)’, meaning ‘To the holy God Serapis, Claudius Hieronymianus legate of the Sixth Legion Victrix built this temple from the ground’. Source: RIB 658.

Eboracum and the Emperors

Confirmation of Eboracum’s rise in prominence was offered by a series of imperial visits from the 2^nd to the 4^th centuries. The first of these was fleeting. The Emperor Hadrian, the empire’s most famous nomadic Philhellene, likely visited here in the early years of the 120s AD. Eboracum was likely the last major urban stopping point for the emperor as he made his way to plan the great walled imperial frontier that we now know as Hadrian’s Wall.

The next imperial visit to Eboracum was less felicitous for the emperor. In 208 AD, the emperor Septimius Severus arrived in Britain. Eboracum was used as his base from which his campaigns could be waged against the natives in Caledonia. This was an extensive campaign, both well organised and well provisioned, but the exact reasons for it being waged remain unclear. Military glory – ever important for the exercise of imperial authority – was likely a consideration but appears to have been one of several mooted reasons for the Roman’s sallying across the imperial frontier. Our sources for example, suggest that Severus used the mild disturbances on the British border as a pretence for a campaign far from Rome, which could be used to extradite his two sons – Caracalla and Geta – from the corrupting influences of the imperial capital.

“A more important reason was that he was anxious to get his sons out of Rome so they could return to their senses, leading a sober military life away from the luxurious delicacies of Rome.”
(Herodian, 3.14.2)

Regardless of the motivations, the campaigns enjoyed mixed results. Initially, the Romans made significant territorial in-roads. Cassius Dio reports that Severus reached the limits of the island, and even indulged his personal proclivity for astronomy. The historian describes how the emperor was able to accurately observe the movement of that rarest of Scottish phenomena, the sun.

However, the natives displayed a reluctance to engage in pitched battles, drawing the Romans further and further into the difficult, unwelcoming Caledonian weather and terrain, which sapped the army of manpower and morale. A rather precarious peace was brokered; although the Caledonians withdrew temporarily, a rebellion later in 210 AD prompted Severus to start planning a second, much harsher, punitive campaign. Unfortunately, illness cut short his campaign. His death on campaign had allegedly already been prophesised to him before he set out, but the notoriously superstitious Severus accepted his fate. Returning to Eboarcum, still the base of the travelling imperial court, Severus awaited his end. His last words, addressed to his sons, were allegedly, “be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, and scorn all others”. Some would argue that these words were followed to closely by the sons, contributing the increasing influence of the soldiers in imperial politics as the empire dissolved into the chaos of the 3^rd century crisis. Rome’s first African emperor died and was cremated in the northern British city of Eboracum in 211 AD, confirming the cosmopolitan nature of the Empire at its peak.

According to modern antiquarians in York, a large hill to the west of the modern city is associated with the site of Severus’ cremation, although no archaeological investigation has ever been conducted.

As the empire descended into chaos in the 3^rd century, it became increasingly difficult for the emperors to retain control of the furthest reaches of empire. Britain, along with substantial tracts of Gaul, were ruled by usurpers. In 305 AD the emperor Constantius I, one of the Tetrarchs, crossed from Gaul into Britain with the aim of restoring Roman rule in the island. He too travelled with his son, Constantine. The Tetrarch secured a victory in the north of Britain against the Pictish tribes, taking the title Britannicus Maximus. Like Severus a century before him however, Constantius’ campaign beyond the imperial frontier proved largely fruitless. He died after contracting a sickness on 24 July 306 AD, in the city of Eboracum, the second emperor to do so. Whereas Severus was let down his sons however, Constantine, who was acclaimed by the soldiers at Eboracum, would go on to change the course of history.

What to see in Eboracum today:

Much of ancient Eboarcum has been well excavated in modern York, with a number of sights available for visitors to see.

Larger remains have been uncovered including the remains of the Roman basilica. You’ll know you’re in the right area to explore these remains when you see the modern statue of Constantine the Great. The emperor watches over the remains of the city where he was first acclaimed, kept company by a column excavated from the structure. Elsewhere, a Roman-era bath house has been uncovered in St. Sampson’s Square. The ancient city walls are also in a state of good repair, and make for an enjoyable route to follow as you explore the city.

A wealth of smaller Roman material has also been uncovered from ancient Eboracum and is now on display in the Yorkshire Museum. Notable finds from this site include the head of a marble statue of Constantine the Great, along with a 4^th century sculpture of the god Mars. Visitors to the museum can also see the above dedication made by the Legate to commemorate the construction of the temple of Serapis. The Museum is also well-stocked with numismatic pieces, attesting to the ancient city’s prosperity. Visitors to the museum can also see a number of ancient sarcophagi displayed in the museum’s gardens.

Eboracum – York – on Timetravelrome app:

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Author: written for Timetravelrome by Kieren Johns.

Sources: Dio, 77.13.3;  Dio, 77.11.1;   Dio, 77.15.2; Herodian, 3.14.5

Header Photo: Bronze statue of Constantine the Great, by York Minster, licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0