Colonists from Megara in Greece founded the city sometime in the middle of the 7^th century B.C., and it was the westernmost Greek colony in Sicily. They soon came into conflict with the neighboring city of Segesta, inhabited by local Sicilians. Over the next several decades, Selinus was frequently at war with Segesta. Yet by the early 5^th century B.C., Selinus was prospering.

Carthage Invades Sicily

In 480 B.C., at the same time that the Persians were moving on Greece in the famous invasion that would end at Thermopylae and Salamis, the Carthaginians were moving against Sicily. Diodorus claims that this was a pre-made agreement between Persia and Carthage. They intended to fully dominate the Greeks in a joint effort. The general Hamilcar led 300,000 men over the Mediterranean to Sicily, and began conquering its cities. Interestingly enough, despite being a Greek colony, Selinus supported Carthage. They sent a message to Hamilcar informing him that their cavalry would arrive the next day.

However, unfortunately for Hamilcar, Gelon, ruler of Gela and Syracuse, who had brought 55,000 men against Carthage, intercepted the letter. Gelon cleverly sent his own cavalry into Hamilcar’s camp at sunrise, posing as the horsemen from Selinus. The Carthaginians welcomed them as friends, and they rode easily into the camp, killed Hamilcar, and set fire to the Carthaginian ships. They signaled Gelon, who marched his infantry into to join in battle. Leaderless and panicked, the soldiers of Carthage were easy prey. When the men from Selinus arrived, Carthage had already lost the battle, and failed in its bid to conquer Sicily.

The Siege of Silenus

Carthage eventually dropped its alliance with Selinus, and supported the city’s old rivals in Segesta. In the spring of 409 A.D., Carthage sent an army of at least 100,000 men to Sicily under the command of Hannibal Mago. The Selinuntians were dismayed by the overwhelming force, but resolved to fight to the end, and hoped for rescue from their allies. The entire population of Selinus contributed to its defense. Every young man in the city took up arms. The old men organized supplies, bringing weapons and ammunition, and encouragement to the men on the walls. The women and girls worked the mills and brought food to the defenders. Yet, the walls were weak. Selinus had not been often under threat, and as a result had not kept them in peak condition. Hannibal’s siege engines knocked down a substantial section within the first day.

The defenders expelled the initial attack through the bottleneck of the fallen wall, but the next day fell back under the onslaught.  The fighting moved into the city, and was far from over. The Selinuntians fought fiercely, for they were fighting for their lives. Both sides took heavy casualties, but Carthage could supply constant fresh troops, while the defenders of Selinus grew exhausted. Still, the battle raged for nine days. The men of Selinus built barricades, and the women threw stones and tiles from the rooftops. Eventually, they began to falter, and the Carthaginians pushed past the barricades. Some Selinuntians gathered in the marketplace, where they died fighting. Others defended individual houses to the end. The frustrated Carthaginians set fire to the homes, and slaughtered all those that ran out, mutilating their bodies. They only spared the women and children who had taken refuge in the temples.

Final Destruction

 “By nightfall the city had been sacked, and of the dwellings some had been burned and others razed to the ground, while the whole area was filled with blood and corpses. Sixteen thousand was the sum of the inhabitants who were found to have fallen, not counting the more than five thousand who had been taken captive.”

Hannibal destroyed the walls of Selinus, and left it abandoned, and yet it was not the final end of the city. A man named Hermocrates, exiled from Syracuse, rebuilt the walls and invited any surviving Selinuntians to return home. Using Silenus as a base, he fought the local Sicilians and the Carthaginians. He received much praise from the Greek colonies on the island, but eventually returned to Syracuse. The city worked to rebuild, and was successfully re-established. From the early 4^th century B.C. it was a tributary and subject of Carthage.

During the Second Punic War, Rome was more directly involved in Sicily. The hapless city of Selinus found itself at the center of military operations between Rome and Carthage. As Rome began to gain ground, Carthage resolved to defend as few cities as possible to concentrate their forces. They subsequently moved all the inhabitants of Selinus to Lilybaeum, and razed Selinus to the ground. The Selinuntians’ troubles were far from over, as the Romans proceeded to lay siege to Lilybaeum for the next ten years. Selinus was never rebuilt, though the Romans remembered its location. Both Pliny the Elder and Strabo mentioned the city. Strabo counted it among a list of extinct cities.

What to See Here:

Despite its destruction at the hands of the Carthaginians, there are excellent archaeological remains at Selinus. There are substantial remains of a number of religious structures. The best preserved is the one known as Temple E. Dating to around 455 B.C., this Doric structure is one of the most recent of the plethora of religious structures at Selinus. A stele recovered at the site indicated that this temple was originally dedicated to Hera. Fragments of the decorative assembly of the temple survive in the form of four metopes. These are all kept in the Museo Archeologico di Palermo. Also of note is the wealth of archaeological remains on the ancient acropolis.

Selinus on Timetravelrome app:

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

Author: written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen.

Sources: Diodorus, Library of History; Strabo, Geography; Pliny the Elder, Natural History; Pausanias, Description of Greece.

Header photo: Selinunte Panoramic View, by Rattiane, picture is in public domain.

Scipio Arrives in Africa 

While Masinissa had been fighting in Africa, Scipio had been fighting the Roman Senate. He finally received permission, and set sail for Africa. Hearing of Scipio’s impending arrival, Syphax and the Carthaginians tried to lure Masinissa into a trap with a fake offer of peace. They hoped to remove the threat of the young warlord before Scipio arrived. However, Masinissa turned the deceit back onto them. He pretended that he wished to meet, but actually headed at full speed to Scipio at the coast. Together, the two generals began wreaking havoc upon the Carthaginian forces. The first battle took place before the Carthaginians even knew that Scipio had landed. Masinissa and his Numidians drew them out of their defensible city and into a trap laid by the Romans. 

In a subsequent action, Masinissa’s forces rode in to set fire to the huts of Syphax’s men. The Carthaginians woke, confused, and went to aid their allies, unaware that the blaze was due to enemy actions. Dazed and unarmed, they were easy prey for the waiting Romans. 40,000 Carthaginians and Numidians died, and 5000 captured. While the Carthaginians desperately regrouped, Scipio and Masinissa took city after city. In another major fight, the Carthaginians suffered crushing defeat again, and fled back toward Carthage. The frightened Carthaginian Senate finally ordered Hannibal to halt his attack on Italy and return to defend his home. 

The Charms of Sophonisba

Meanwhile, Masinissa re-entered Massylian territory, and his people enthusiastically welcomed him. Yet Syphax was not ready to give up. He brought his forces into battle with Masinissa, and in the fighting, fell from his horse and fell captive. Masinissa and his cavalry rode ahead to Cirta, the capital city, and informed them of Syphax’s capture. They refused to believe him at first, until Masinissa brought Syphax up and showed him, bound in chains. The city officials were grieved and frightened, and they decided their best course of action was to mollify Masinissa.  They opened the gates and handed over the city without any further fighting. When Masinissa entered the royal palace, Sophonisba threw herself at his feet and begged for mercy. 

She rekindled Masinissa’s earlier passion for her, and he married her immediately. He vowed to protect her and to save her from the shame of being paraded in a Roman triumph. When Scipio learned of this, he handled the situation tactfully, due to his deep friendship with Masinissa. He publically praised Masinissa’s exploits, and then took him aside to privately rebuke him. Masinissa may have stood firm in the face of angry reproach, but he crumbled at Scipio’s loving appeal to the trust, friendship, and bond between the two of them. Distraught at having betrayed his friend, Masinissa withdrew to his tent in tears. After much thought, he offered Sophonisba poison. It was the only way he could honor his promise to her, while upholding his duty to Scipio. She accepted, and Masinissa was heartbroken at her death. 

War Ends

Soon after, Scipio called Masinissa before the full assembled army.  “Addressing Masinissa as king and eulogizing him in the highest possible terms, he presented him with a golden crown, curule chair, an ivory sceptre and also with a purple-bordered toga and a tunic embroidered with palms. He enhanced the value of these gifts by informing him that the Romans considered no honour more splendid than that of a triumph, and that no more magnificent insignia were borne by triumphing generals than those which the Roman people deemed Masinissa, alone of all foreigners, worthy to possess.” The Senate confirmed Scipio’s declaration of Masinissa as the King of the Numidians. He continued to aid Scipio against the Carthaginians. Scipio so valued Masinissa that at the final battle at Zama, he delayed the action until his friend arrived. 

The two men stayed close throughout their lives, and Masinissa remained an unwaveringly loyal ally of Rome. He sent cavalry to aid Rome on multiple occasions, often sending even more soldiers than requested.  He outlived his old friend Scipio, who died relatively early at the age of fifty-three. Masinissa ruled Numidia for fifty-four years from his capital at Cirta, and the kingdom thrived under his leadership. He fathered his final son at eighty-six, and at eighty-seven he was still personally leading his armies into battle. When he reached the age of ninety, he felt he did not have long left. He sent for Scipio Aemilianus, the grandson of his old friend. In a fitting tribute to his friendship with Scipio, he left the division of his kingdom and the care of his children all in the hands of Aemilianus. 

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Sources: Livy, History of Rome; Appian, The Foreign Wars; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History; Polybius, The Histories.

What to See Here?

Very few Roman remains have survived at Cirta. The only substantial piece of ancient architecture within the city is part of a rampart, preserved at the citadel. Outside the city, archaeologists have discovered inscriptions that indicate the presence of a sanctuary dedicated to Saturn. There is also evidence of a 1st century BC dwelling. A deep canyon (created by the Rhummel-wadi) runs through the middle of the city. Fragmentary remains of several bridges still stand in this valley. Further along are a few arches of the city’s aqueduct.

Smaller Artifacts recovered from Cirta, including a beautiful mosaic, are on display in the Musée National Cirta.

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

An Errant Nephew

Following the defeat at Carthago Nova, Hasdrubal Barca returned to Carthage to raise more troops, leaving Masinissa in sole control of cavalry operations in Spain. For the next two years, Masinissa waged a largely successful guerilla war against Scipio. Though he could not hope to achieve total victory, he greatly hampered Scipio’s progress. The two generals grew to respect one another’s skills, and a chance encounter helped Scipio earn even greater regard from the young Numidian warlord. Following a skirmish, the Romans learned that one of their Numidian prisoners was of royal blood. They brought the frightened boy before Scipio, and explained that he was Massiva, the orphaned nephew of Masinissa himself. He had joined the campaign to Spain, but Masinissa would not allow the boy to participate in a battle. 

On that day, however, without his uncle’s knowledge, Massiva had found weapons and snuck into the action. He had been captured when his horse fell and the impact threw him from the animal. Scipio made no demands or conditions, but merely asked whether the boy would like to return to his uncle. Massiva burst into tears, replying in the affirmative, and Scipio not only sent him safely back with his own cavalry escort for as far as he wished, but gave him a gold ring, purple-bordered tunic, and a beautiful horse, adorned with the finest tack. Masinissa was overjoyed to find his nephew unharmed, and deeply grateful to Scipio for his return.

The Battle of Ilipa

In the spring of 206 B.C., Hasdrubal Barca returned from Africa with reinforcements. The Carthaginians, together with their Numidian allies, marched from Gades with a force of around 70,000 men. They outnumber the Romans by about 20,000. The two armies encamped near Ilipa, and spent the next few days lining up for battle without engaging. Each day Scipio had his men take their time and line up after the Carthaginians.  He always placed his Roman legions in the center of his line and his Spanish allies on the two wings. When he was convinced that the Carthaginians had taken the bait, Scipio ordered his men fed and prepared before daylight, then lined up for battle close to the Carthaginian camp, with his line swapped, Romans on the wings and allies in the center. Taken by surprise, the Carthaginians rushed to form up.

They placed their best soldiers in the center and their allies on the outside, believing that Scipio had arranged his army as before. By the time they realized their mistake, it was too late to reform. Their soldiers had also not had breakfast, a fact Scipio exploited by drawing the battle out longer. Eventually he sent in in his wings to attack quickly, holding the center back. The highly trained Roman soldiers overwhelmed the less experienced Iberians. Meanwhile the best Carthaginian soldiers were unable to aid their comrades for fear of the lagging Roman center. The Carthaginian line crumbled, and a sudden heavy fall of rain enabled them to reach shelter in their camp. All through the night, the Spanish allies deserted to the Roman cause, and in the morning, the Romans attacked the surviving Carthaginian infantry, leaving only 6,000 alive. 

New Friendships

Scipio next marched for Gades, where the remaining Carthaginian forces were gathering. Upon hearing of Scipio’s impending arrival, Masinissa was determined to meet him. He told the Carthaginian general Mago that he and his soldiers needed to go on a sortie to condition their horses and plunder supplies, and he sent three of his Numidians to request an audience with Scipio. The two men met in mutual admiration. Masinissa began with thanks for the return of his nephew, going on to say that he had been looking for a chance to express his gratitude in person ever since that day. He was impressed by Scipio’s abilities on the battlefield, disillusioned with his former allies, and felt sure that he could be of service to Scipio in Africa, and help ensure a quick defeat of Carthage. 

Scipio “watched him and listened to him with great pleasure. He knew that Masinissa was the master-spirit in all the enemy’s cavalry, and the youth’s whole bearing showed high courage” (Livy). The two young generals quickly developed a mutual affection, and ended the meeting by pledging loyalty to one another. Masinissa returned to Gades, but soon sailed for Africa, having received word that his father, the king, had died. Mago made one ill-fated attempt to recapture Carthago Nova by sea, and when he returned to Gades, found that the people had revolted, and held the gates shut against him. They welcomed Scipio and the Romans. Carthage had lost its hold on Spain, and Scipio returned to Rome to seek approval for an African campaign. Meanwhile, Masinissa faced his own trials back in Numidia, as he fought to retain his royal inheritance. 

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Photo: Jan Styka – Nero at Baiae by Jan Stykais licensed under  CC0

Sources: Livy, History of Rome; Polybius, The Histories

What to See Here?

Already by the fourth century, when the writer Avienus visited the site, Gades lay in ruins. But despite its early destruction and subsequent redevelopment, ancient traces still remain. You can still see vestiges of the ancient city wall. But Cádiz’s most famous ancient site is its Roman theatre, one of the largest in the Roman world. 

It was built by the first century aristocrat Lucius Cornelius Balbus and designed to hold 20,000 spectators. It is also one of the few provincial theatres described in the ancient literature, mentioned by both Cicero and the contemporary geographer Strabo. A statue of the eminent Roman citizen responsible for building it still stands in the centre to this day. 

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

War Breaks Out

Masinissa’s father, King Gala of the Massylii, maintained close relations with Carthage. In fact, Masinissa grew up in the capital city itself. As a result, he was very familiar with the culture, and even engaged to a woman of Carthage. Sophonista was the daughter of Hasdrubal, the highest ranking general in Carthage. The fact that he betrothed his daughter to a foreign Numidian speaks highly of Masinissa’s character, intelligence, and abilities. Unsurprisingly, King Gala allied himself once again with Carthage for the 2^nd Punic War. King Syphax of the Masaesyli began leading raids against Carthage and the Massylii. The Roman generals leading the Republic’s forces in Spain, brothers named Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, heard of this, and subsequently offered an alliance to Syphax, which he readily accepted. 

When Carthage urged Gala to move against Syphax, young Masinissa was eager to obey. Only seventeen years old, he convinced his father to send the army and begged to take command. The two armies clashed in a great battle. Livy says that 30,000 men died. Masinissa won, and drove Syphax and his forces back to Mauretania. However, while he was there, Syphax managed to gather a large number of local tribes to his side. He prepared to cross with his massive army into Spain, but Masinissa followed swiftly. He continued the war against Syphax alone, with no help from Carthage, stopping Syphax’s plans to enter Spain. 

The Battle of Castulo

When Hasdrubal returned to Spain to fight the Scipio brothers, he asked Masinissa to join him. The young prince came at the head of 3000 Numidian cavalry. The state of affairs looked dire for Rome. Hannibal pressed his attack on Italy, and Rome had no more men to send to Spain. The Scipio brothers employed 20,000 Iberian mercenaries to boost their forces. Unfortunately, the generals of Carthage convinced many of them to desert the Romans and join their armies. Nevertheless, Publius Scipio marched out to meet two of the Carthaginian generals. On the way, he found himself under constant harassment from the dangerous Numidians. Unrivaled in speed, agility, and maneuvers, they cut off stragglers and foragers, and even attacked the camp outposts. At night, they would rush the stockade of the camp itself. They kept the Romans in a state of continual fear and anxiety, and prevented them from resupplying. 

Feeling the pressure, Publius Scipio sought out a battle where he would usually have remained cautious. He led a quick march to attack the Iberian allies of the Carthaginians near the city of Castulo. The Romans were winning easily until Masinissa, having guessed Scipio’s plan, reappeared in the middle of the battle. The Numidians rushed both flanks of the Romans, and soon after the Carthaginian forces arrived. Though Scipio fought fiercely in the heart of the battle, an enemy spear struck him in the side. He fell dead from his horse, and the Romans fled, utterly dispirited by the loss of their general. 

Victory in Spain

Soon after, the victorious forces moved against Gnaeus Scipio. Upon seeing their approach, Gnaeus feared already that his brother had fallen. He and his men retreated under the cover of night, heading for Ebro. The next morning, realizing what had happened, the Carthaginians sent Masinissa and his cavalry in pursuit. The nimble horsemen quickly caught the Romans, and attacked their rear lines. Forced to turn constantly to defend themselves, the Romans’ march was dangerously slowed. Eventually the attacks became too fierce. Gnaeus circled his men on a small rise to form a more organized defense.  Soon after, as Gnaeus had feared, the remaining Carthaginians arrived. Using the packs and saddles of their horses, the Romans built a makeshift rampart.  It proved tougher to breach than expected, and for a time, the Roman soldiers held off the attack.

Eventually, however, the Carthaginian forces managed to cut through the packs in several places. “The camp was rushed on all sides and captured; the little band of defenders were slaughtered by the masses of the enemy, helpless in the hands of their victors.” The news of the brothers’ deaths devastated Rome, and the Senate searched frantically for a new commander. Meanwhile, in Spain, Masinissa celebrated the victory over the Scipio brothers with his Carthaginian allies. He was unaware that his life was destined to be entwined with yet another Scipio, Publius Cornelius Scipio, the son and nephew of the dead commanders, and one of the greatest generals in the history of Rome. 

What to See Here? 

The ruins of ancient Castulo lie just south of modern Linares and have recently been organized as a formal archaeological attraction. Structures that can be distinguished by the remains of their foundations include baths and an aqueduct as well as a possible temple. A perfectly preserved and spectacular mosaic, known as ‘The Mosaic of Loves,’ was discovered here in 2012. The mosaic depicts two main scenes: the Judgment of Paris and Selene and Endymion loves. The mosaic is unique for its compositional scheme and myths represented.

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Sources: Appian, The Punic Wars; Livy, History of Rome; Cassius Dio, Roman History

Header Photo: Zona de las termas en Cástulo by Kordas is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

Pyrrhus and Rome

Pyrrhus was born a prince, the son of King Aeacides of Epirus, a region lining the west coast of the Grecian Peninsula. When he was two years old, civil unrest forced his father to flee Epirus and the family took refuge with the Illyrians, a neighboring tribe. He fought to regain his kingship throughout the period of wars following the death of Alexander, and was finally captured and sent to Alexandria as part of a deal between Demetrius of Macedonia and Ptolemy I of Egypt.  Luckily for Pyrrhus, Ptolemy was an excellent captor. He released Pyrrhus, gave him his daughter, Antigone, in marriage, and helped Pyrrhus win back his throne in Epirus.

In the early 3^rd century B.C., a Greek city on the Italian Peninsula called Tarentum begged Pyrrhus’s aid against Rome. Pyrrhus thought for sure he could handle a fight with the Romans. It was an ideal opportunity to expand his territory and create his own empire in Italy. He set sail from Epirus with a massive army of about 20,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry, 2,000 archers, 500 slingers, and 20 war elephants, ready for battle.

Pyrrhus’s Epirote infantry fought in the Macedonian style phalanx, a deadly fighting tactic, and the Romans were no match for his terrifying war elephants. He won several victories, driving back the Romans decisively until he met them in the Battle of Heraclea. Pyrrhus won the day, but both sides lost many men in the bloody engagement. He attempted to negotiate a treaty, no doubt much to his own advantage, but the Romans rejected it. Both he and the Romans disengaged for the winter months, Pyrrhus and his army spending the time in Campania. 

The Battle of Asculum

The next year, Pyrrhus moved into the region of Apulia, and camped near the city of Asculum. This would be the site of his final great battle with the Romans. Three historians tell the story of the battle, with a number of discrepancies in their accounts. However, it appears that the Romans had learned from their earlier defeats. They forced Pyrrhus into a battle near the banks of a river with many trees surrounding it. Unable to use cavalry and elephants, the two infantry lines fought viciously for the entire day, only pulling back when night fell. The next day, Pyrrhus was able to spread his line further. Leaving some of his men to occupy the wooded area, he led the rest around to where he could force the Romans into an open battle, more favorable to his cavalry. 

Pyrrhus’s elephants charged the Roman lines, but once again, the Romans responded with ingenuity. They had invented special anti-elephant forces after the last battle. Archers and slingers rode on specially designed wagons which had wooden and iron poles, tridents, spikes, and scythes, all designed for use in any direction. Three hundred of these wagons met the elephants, and slowed their advance. Meanwhile, the Roman infantry “fought fiercely with their swords against the spears, reckless of their lives and thinking only of wounding and slaying, while caring naught for what they suffered.” (Plutarch). If they could only break Pyrrhus’s infantry lines before the elephants got through, they might win the battle.

Withdrawal from Italy

It was a desperate attempt, and ultimately unsuccessful. Pyrrhus’s army fought no less intensely and even more so where Pyrrhus himself led the attack. The Romans couldn’t break the infantry. Before long, the elephants broke through, and fell on the Roman soldiers with terrible strength. The Romans broke and retreated. Dionysius of Halicarnassus wrote that together, the armies lost over 15,000 men. After the battle one of Pyrrhus’s commanders came up to congratulate him on the victory. Pyrrhus famously replied “If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined.” The battle gave rise to the phrase, “a Pyrrhic victory,” that being a victory where the losses are so great that it was almost not worth winning.

Pyrrhus and the remainder of his army retreated back across the channel to Epirus shortly after. For while Roman allies were pouring in to reinforce them, he could get no support from his own. He had also seen the tenacious spirit of the Romans, and was surely reconsidering his hopes to conquer them. Despite the withdrawal, Pyrrhus continued in his restless quest for military victory and expansion. He won many more victories during his reign, until he eventually met his own sad end. In 272 B.C., he involved himself in a civil war happening in the city of Argos. 

The End of Pyrrhus

By a misunderstood order, the whole of Pyrrhus’s army, including war elephants, poured into the crowded city streets. The resulting mass of bodies was so chaotic that they had trouble moving and continuing to fight the enemy. One elephant trampled through the crowd, searching for his slain rider. Finding his fallen master, the elephant picked him up with his trunk, laid the body across his tusks, and rampaged through the city, killing all in his path. Pyrrhus found himself in deadly hand-to-hand combat with a soldier of Argos. The soldier’s mother, taking refuge on a rooftop overlooking the struggle, became worried for her son and hurled a chunk of roofing tile. It struck Pyrrhus squarely on the head and knocked him unconscious. He was decapitated, incompetently, by an enemy soldier just as he began to recover.

Sources: Plutarch, Life of Pyrrhus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, Cassius Dio, Roman History, and Frontinus, Stratagems

Photo: Tétradrachme, Argent, Incertain, Épire, Pyrrhus by Pyrrhus (0318-0272 av. J.-C. ; roi d’Epire)is licensed under  CC0

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

What to See Here:

The modern city of Ascoli Satriano stands on the location of ancient Ausculum. The archaeological heritage of the city includes the Archaeological Park of the Daunians, located on the Collina del Serpente (the Hill of the Snake), a roman bridge across the Carapella river, and an underground Roman aqueduct. Some 5 km from the Ascoli, there is a luxury Faragola villa, which possibly belonged to the Scipioni Orfiti family. Unfortunately, in 2017 Faragola villa museum was destroyed by fire.

To find out more: Timetravelrome.