In the instability left by the death of Alexander the Great, his top generals vied for position and power, with four eventually succeeding in establishing their own dynasties. One of these was Seleucus, who ruled over the region of Syria and Mesopotamia from his seat in Babylon. The kingdom passed peacefully to Seleucus’s beloved son, Antiochus I, but the kingdom would not long remain in harmony. Antiochus’s eldest son rebelled against him, and so he put him to death, leading to the succession of his youngest son, Antiochus II, when he died in Sardis in 262 B.C.

Heritage of Alexander the Great

Antiochus II inherited not only the kingdom, but ongoing wars with Ptolemaic Egypt over the rule of Syria. About a decade after taking the throne, Antiochus managed to negotiate a peace with the Ptolemy II, but Ptolemy demanded that the agreement be sealed by marriage, Ptolemy’s own daughter Berenice married to Antiochus. Antiochus had been married even before he knew he was to be heir to the throne, to a woman named Laodice, a woman who would prove herself more than capable of holding her own on the shifting and treacherous political stage. Unlike many ancient marriages, theirs had been for love, long before Antiochus was a political player. After he became king, he named many cities after his beloved first wife, one of which, located on the Lycus River, became one of the most prosperous cities of Asia Minor.

This article is featuring wonderful photos taken by Izabela Miszczak. For more information and an exquisitely detailed walkthrough of the archaeological treasures of Laodicea ad Lycum, please see the excellent article written by Izabela and available on Turkish Archaeological News

A Rejected Queen

Laodice was herself a descendent of Seleucus I, his granddaughter by his second son, Achaeus, and thus a first cousin to her husband, Antiochus. She came from a long line of strong Macedonian women on her grandfather’s side, and proud Persian princesses on her grandmother’s, and she was very willing to defend her position in the empire. However, Ptolemy’s conditions for the treaty were non-negotiable, and though he appears to have held genuine affection for his first wife, Antiochus reluctantly divorced her to secure the treaty. He gave her a gift of a sizable tract of land in Anatolia in an attempt to console her for his rejection.

The marriage to Berenice was successfully completed, the treaty sealed, and Laodice appeared mollified for the moment, perhaps feeling secure in the fact that her children by Antiochus were the only plausible heirs to the throne. Yet not too long after the marriage, Berenice produced a son to Antiochus, named for his father, and the king transferred his inheritance to the infant. Laodice remained in Ephesus, but her lands, wealth, and status granted her considerable political pull, and she continued maneuvering to put her own sons in power.

Ruthless Ambition

In 246, B.C., she enjoyed a breakthrough. Ptolemy II died, and in the commotion of the transfer of power to Ptolemy III, Antiochus abandoned his new family and moved to Ephesus to be with Laodice again. He apparently transferred his succession back to Seleucus, and shortly after, Laodice arranged to have him poisoned, fearing that he might change his mind again. She also resolved to rid herself of Berenice and the threat of the infant Antiochus. Although Berenice sent word to her brother to help her secure the throne and also managed to arouse the support and sympathy of her subjects, Laodice’s assassins got there before she could prepare a defense. They brutally murdered her son, displaying a baby boy of similar appearance to the people and claiming that young Antiochus still lived. 

Meanwhile, in Ephesus, Laodice began to have doubts about the loyalty of Sophron, the garrison commander there. She confided in one of her female attendants, Danae, who was also an intimate friend of hers. Unbeknownst to Laodice, Danae was also Sophron’s lover, and she warned him of his impending arrest, and Sophron turned over the city to Ptolemy III. When she learned of her friend’s betrayal, Laodice responded with ruthless vengeance, first interrogating Danae, and when her former friend refused to give her any answers, she had Danae thrown from cliff to her death.

The End of Berenice

Back in Babylon, Berenice still hoped to launch a counter to Laodice’s plans, and remained under her Gallic guard from protection, but Laodice soon sent assassins to clear the final obstacle to her sons’ succession. Several of Berenice’s female attendants died while desperately defending her, but ultimately they could not prevent her murder. Three of the women who survived the attack found an imposter to place in her bed, and claimed that she was wounded but certain to recover. In this way, they kept the citizens of Seleucia in support of Berenice until Ptolemy could arrive. He sent letters to all the provinces of the kingdom in the name of Berenice and Antiochus, and so managed to secure the entire realm without a single battle. Yet despite the welcome acquisition of land, Ptolemy was enraged at the murder of his sister. He declared war on Seleucus II, now ruling under the watchful eye of his mother, Laodice. He waged a successful, seventeen year war against them. Later Laodice became embroiled in a civil war between her two sons, as she supported her second son in a revolt against Seleucus.

The City of Laodicea ad Lycum

Laodicea ad Lycum, named for the ruthless queen of Seleucia, also enjoyed success, just like its namesake. Though suffering damage in the Mithridatic Wars and as a result of multiple earthquakes, it nonetheless rose to great prominence due to its location on important trade routes and its production of coveted black wool exports. The city was also a hub of important medical learning, and even produced the famous ancient ophthalmologist, Demosthenes Philalethes. It was also a major banking city, increasing its wealth and prestige.

The citizens of Laodicea were so prosperous that they even refused financial support from the Rome and the Emperor Nero in the wake of devastating earthquakes in 60 A.D., but insisted on paying to repair the damages themselves. Due to a large and thriving Jewish community, Laodicea became an important city in early Christianity, and its wealth is even acknowledged in passages of the Christian Bible. Laodicea became an important bishopric into the Byzantine Period, and was only abandoned sometime in the 13^th century A.D. after enduring multiple raids by foreign attackers. 

What to See Here?

Despite not featuring with any great prominence in the historical record, certainly in comparison to other sites in this region of Asia Minor, the archaeological remains of Laodicea attest to a city of considerable wealth and status in antiquity. One is able to see at the archaeological site the ruins of a stadium, baths, and a gymnasium. These structures are accompanied by 2 theatres. Both are of impressive size and indicate the wealth of the city. The slightly smaller theatre is referred to by epigraphic sources as an Amphitheatre, and it was dedicated to the Emperor Vespasian in 79 A.D. by an exceptionally wealthy private citizen. The site is also scattered with the remains of temples, the most impressive of which – known as “Temple A” – has some columns still standing giving visitors a sense of the scale of the ancient city.

Laodicea on Timetravelrome App:

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Sources: Sources: Porphyrius, Comments on the book of Daniel; Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists; Eusebius, Chronicle;Justinus, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus’ Philippic Histories;Polyaenus, Stratagems.

Header image: Laodicea northern sacred agora. Photo by Izabela Miszczak. Used by permission of the author.

Cyrene was a Greek city on the coast of Libya.  A group of settlers from the island of Thera founded it in 631 B.C. It fell under Ptolemaic rule, but in 276 B.C. Magas, son-in-law of Ptolemy, declared himself the independent king of Cyrene. He married Apama, daughter of the Seleucid King Antiochus I, in an alliance against the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Their daughter, Berenice II, queen of Cyrene by birthright, became a powerful player in the treacherous political arena.

Berenice of Cyrene

A number of the women descended from the major Macedonian generals were tough, smart, and as ruthlessly ambitious as any man. In 249 B.C., Magas died, leaving Apama a widow. She quickly maneuvered for an alliance with the Antigonid Empire. Its rulers were her uncles, and she sought protection from Cyrene’s former rulers in Egypt. She offered the hand of her beautiful young daughter, Berenice, and through her the throne of Cyrene, to Demetrius the Fair, the brother of the Antigonid King. He accepted the match, and married Berenice. Yet not long after the marriage, it was Apama and Demetrius that became lovers. They carried on an affair in plain view of Berenice.

Berenice was not a safe person to cross. She had learned to fight and ride from a young age, and even went to war with her father. One story tells that in a great battle, her father Magas had lost heart and fled the field. The army seemed ready to follow, but Berenice rode up, rallied the soldiers, and led them to victory. Now the same fiery young woman saw her new husband abandon her in favor of her mother. Jealous and hurt, Berenice assisted conspirators in a plan to assassinate Demetrius, who had already shown himself to be a cruel and licentious king. She led the assassins to her mother’s bedchamber, where the lovers were together. Apama tried to protect Demetrius, but Berenice coolly instructed the assassins not to harm her mother, and watched as they murdered her husband. He died in the arms of his mother-in-law.

An Unhappy End

A free agent once more, Berenice married Ptolemy Euergetes of Egypt, and bore him a son, Ptolemy Philopater. She is said to have raised horses in Egypt, and to have personally raced them at the Olympic Games sometime between 245 and 241 B.C. Unfortunately her murderous ways came back around, and the end to her story is not a happy one. After the death of her second husband, Berenice expected to be queen regent of Egypt, as her son was only seventeen years old. The influential court advisor Sosibius saw this as the perfect opportunity to seize more power. In a secret council, he urged Philopater to murder his mother, uncle, and brother. The only man who spoke against this plan was the honorable King Cleomenes of Sparta, exiled to Egypt. The plan went forward, and Philopater had his mother killed, along with her brother-in-law and second son, Magas.

Under Roman Rule

Back in Cyrene, the city remained independent for another two centuries. However, Rome was on the march, and in 74 B.C. they took control of Cyrene. Only a year later, there was a small uprising of Jewish citizens against the new Roman rule, but it was quickly put down. Cyrene enjoyed a time of peaceful success during the final decades of the Republic and early Empire. However, in 117 B.C., a massive group of rebellious Jews in Cyrene broke into riots and murdered a large number of Greek citizens. In order to preserve the city, Emperor Hadrian gave it the status of colonia, and rebuilt and repopulated it.

Yet despite this, the city began to decline. It had flourished due to its export of siliphium, an herb valued for its ability to interrupt conception. It was so popular, in fact, that it was harvested to extinction. Without its staple export, Cyrene couldn’t compete with the growing international trade emporium at nearby Alexandria. After two earthquakes rocked the city, it was never re-invigorated. Ammianus Marcellinus, writing in the mid fourth century A.D., described it as a ruined and deserted city. Cyrene’s fourth century misfortune, however, is good for the modern era. Having been abandoned in its Roman period and not converted into a medieval city, the ruins are extensive, and visitors can enjoy viewing the remnants of the great city.

What to See Here Now ?

Now under the protection of UNESCO, this remarkable Greco-Roman site in modern-day Libya has been a tourist magnet since its discovery the eighteenth century. Even though only around 20 percent has been unearthed, it spans 20 hectares. Cyrene is famous principally for its temples, not least the monumental Temple of Zeus. Originally dating from the sixth century BC, it was rebuilt in the second century AD. It has a length of 70 metres and a width of 30 metres, its dimensions closely mirror those of the Parthenon in Athens.

Another must-see site is the Sanctuary of Apollo. It was once a remarkable structure and is inexorably entwined with the story of the city’s founding. This structure also contains the remains of the city’s Trajanic Baths. Then there is the Greek Agora, the 90 x 90 metre gymnasium, rebuilt as a Roman Forum in the first century AD. Also of particular interest is the Sanctuary to Demeter and a remarkable Roman theatre. Finally worth visiting are the mosaics in the vicinity of the Hall of Muses.

Cyrene on Timetravelrome:

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Author: written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen.

Sources: Diodorus, The Library of History; Plutarch, Cleomenes

Header photo:  Cyrene Theater by MM – licensed under Public domain.

Heist of the Millennium:

Not ten years later, Alexander the Great was dead in Babylon with no heir to take his throne. His many generals vied for control in the power vacuum that followed. They divided the satraps, or provinces, that they had conquered over the years among themselves. Ptolemy, ever a shrewd player, opted to take Egypt. Despite its rich resources, it was far from their ancestral heartland of Macedonia in Greece, and therefore considered unimportant. Ptolemy withdrew to the capital of Memphis and slowly began to build his strength and wealth.Yet in 321 B.C., he made a bold move that propelled Egypt to the center of the struggle. 

Alexander’s body had lain embalmed in Babylon for almost two years, waiting for the completion of an ornate golden sarcophagus and massive carriage to carry him back to Macedonia. As the funeral procession, at last underway, moved through Damascus, Ptolemy intercepted it and hijacked the body of Alexander. He brought the king’s body to Memphis, and laid him to rest in the Temple of Ammon. The theft kicked off the First War of the Diadochi. Trouble had already been brewing between Ptolemy and Perdiccas, the regent of Macedonia. After the theft, Perdiccas tried to hold a show trial to condemn Ptolemy to death. Yet the soldiers were deeply fond of Ptolemy, who was “modest and unassuming … superlatively generous and approachable.” They instead voted to acquit. 

Attack on Egypt:

Nevertheless, Perdiccas marched on Egypt, with a large army of infantry, cavalry, and even war elephants. He first attempted to cross the Nile at the Ford of Camels, but Ptolemy had fortified the fortress there. The soldiers set up ladders to scale the walls, while the elephants began tearing apart the wooden palisades. Ptolemy had his best men with him in the vanguard of his army. Hoping to encourage his soldier, he rushed to the point where the fighting was thickest. Grabbing a long spear, he blinded the lead elephant, then attacked the men scaling the walls with reckless courage. His men followed his example, and rushed boldly into the chaos. After an exhausting day of fighting, Perdiccas eventually withdrew his men. Rather than resting, however, he led a quick march downstream toward Memphis, where a small island divided the large river. 

Hoping for surprise, he dispatched the attack at the first light of dawn. The first soldiers managed to get to the little island, but the water was deep. They were almost swept away by the strong current. Trying to make the crossing easier for his men, Perdiccas sent his elephants upstream in the river, and his horsemen downstream. He hoped the elephants would provide a break in the current, while the horsemen could catch any soldiers who needed it. The animals waded into the river, disturbing the mud and silt of the riverbed, which only deepened the channel between. The soldiers in the river panicked, believing Ptolemy had some kind of sluicegate upstream that he had opened to flood them. Those that could still manage it scrambled to the nearest solid land, and Perdiccas stopped the crossing.

Catastrophe at the Crossing:

The men who had made it to the island began to worry. If Ptolemy attacked them, they weren’t  enough to defend themselves, but the river was still running strong and fast. Reluctantly, they threw away their weapons and armor. It was their own gear that they had carried and protected for more than ten years of campaigning. However, they had no choice. Free of their burdens, they leapt back into the water. Those who could swim managed to navigate the swirling waters, but many did not. Flailing and drowning, they caught the attention of other residents of the water.  Hordes of Nile crocodiles arrived, feeding at will on both bodies and those still living and struggling to reach the safety of the shore. Their friends watched helplessly from the banks as their comrades were torn to pieces and the Nile ran red with blood.

The assault was a disaster, the river littered with mangled corpses. Over two thousand men died, whether by drowning or crocodiles. Some ancient historians even claimed that Perdiccas lost more men in the river than Alexander had in his years of campaigning. As Perdiccas’s men sat around their camp that night, they saw Ptolemy and his men on the other bank. They were reverently gathering the dead, despite being their enemies, and burying them will full rights and honors. Infuriated by the loss of life and disillusioned with Perdiccas’s command, three of Perdiccas’s senior officers, Pithon, Antigenes, and Seleucus, snuck into his tent that night and stabbed him to death. 

Ptolemy’s Legacy:

Ptolemy remained in Egypt for the rest of his life. He moved the capital of Egypt to Alexandria; the port city founded by Alexander, and made it the jewel of the ancient world. It eventually eclipsed Memphis entirely, which slowly faded from prominence beneath the splendor of the new city. Ptolemy earned the distinction of being the only one of Alexander’s successors to die peacefully of old age in his own bed. He founded the long-lasting Ptolemaic Empire, whose final member was Cleopatra VII, mistress of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, one of the most famous monarchs in history. 

Sources: Diodorus, Library of History; Strabo, Geography

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.T

Photo: Relief of Ptolemy I Making an Offering to Hathor  by Thad Zajdowicz
is licensed under  CC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0)

What to see Here:

The ancient city of Memphis has been under conservation as a world heritage site since 1979 and is today an open-air museum. It boasts considerable temple remains, the most important being the Temple of Ptah first mentioned by the ‘father of history’ Herodotus. Many remains from the temple have been shipped off to museum collections around the globe. A decent repository, however, can be found in Cairo’s Egyptian Museum. Within this enormous temple complex, archaeologists have uncovered the remains of what they believe to be the Temple of Apis: the bull manifestation of Ptah. It is described by the geographer Strabo, who accompanied conquering Roman soldiers there after Octavian’s victory over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium (31 BC). The only other significant Roman era site is a temple to Mithras, discovered by accident along with 11 statues in 1837 just north of Memphis.

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