– Cassius Dio

Christened Publius Helvius Pertinax, the future emperor enjoyed a humble and practical beginning, which informed his decisions throughout his life. He even maintained his business enterprises in Vada Sabatia, just south of Savo, after being named emperor. Though a favorite of the people and the Senate due to his unassuming respect of the Senators and his careful administration of the empire, he tried to make improvements too suddenly and incurred the wrath of the Roman Praetorians, to his demise.

Childhood and Army Life

Pertinax’s father was no noble, rather he was a freedman named Helvius Successus. The cognomen Pertinax is similar to “persistence,” something the Historia Augusta claims was given to the young boy by his father in honor of his own diligence in timber trade. There is some discrepancy between the sources as to Pertinax’s hometown, but Cassius Dio’s claim that he was born in Alba Pompeia, a city in Luguria just barely to the south of Savo, modern day Savona, is generally accepted. He is frequently mentioned as “going home” to his father’s workshop in a nearby town, and Cassius Dio served in the Senate at the same time as Pertinax, even attending his funeral eulogy. There is little reason to doubt his information.

Pertinax’s father wished for his son to receive some education, and so he sent him to learn literature and arithmetic. He particularly excelled in grammar under the tutelage of Sulpicius Apollinaris, and pursued a career as a grammar instructor himself. Quickly realizing that there was little money to be made as a grammar tutor, he instead joined the Roman Army, and quickly earned recognition and promotions for his actions in the Parthian War. He served in many different regions of the Empire, as a soldier in Britain, squadron commander in Moesia, supply officer in northern Italy, and commander of the German naval fleet, finally ending up in Dacia.  

Earning Imperial Attention

Pertinax lost the Dacia command due to the schemes of some rivals, who convinced the emperor, Marcus Aurelius, that Pertinax was not to be trusted. However, Pertinax had developed a relationship with Claudius Pompeianus, the emperor’s son-in-law, and the latter took him as his aid in order to begin rebuilding his reputation, and then later pushed through Pertinax’s enrollment in the Senate. Eventually, the plot against him was discovered. To make it right, Marcus Aurelius gave him the rank of praetor and the command of the First Legion. After distinguishing himself once again, Marcus recommended him for a consulship, and praised his skill and quality of character frequently. Over the following years, Pertinax continued to serve loyally throughout the empire as governor of first Moesia, then Dacia, and later Syria.

It was about this time, shortly after the death of Marcus Aurelius that the Historia Augusta claims Pertinax began to grow ambitious and money hungry. His ambitions were halted, however, when Commodus’s Prefect of the Praetorians, Tigidius Perennis, ordered him to leave Rome, essentially softly exiling him to the country. Pertinax when home to Liguria and took charge of his father’s old ’loth-making shop, as well as buying up and managing numerous local farms and business to add to his holdings. After Perennis became embroiled in a plot to overthrow Commodus, the emperor ordered his execution and invited Pertinax back into favor, asking him to take over command of Britain. Upon returning from this post, Commodus appointed him consul for the second time.

Acclaimed Emperor

Pertinax was still serving as consul when Commodus’s mistress, chamberlain, and prefect of his bodyguard conspired to assassinate their emperor. Pertinax was apparently unaware of the plot, but the three came to him after Commodus was dead and asked him to succeed as emperor. Upon winning the support of the army, though begrudgingly, Pertinax went before the Senate, told them the army had acclaimed him Emperor, but insisted that he did not want the office and would immediately resign it. However, the Senate quickly begged him to take the office, and affirmed him as emperor while declaring Commodus a public enemy.

Pertinax received a warm welcome, for Commodus had been universally hated, particularly by the Senators who feared his violent, changing moods and frequent executions. Furthermore, Pertinax was deeply enamored of traditional Rome, and respectful of the Senate. Dio Cassius, a contemporary Senator, praised him highly in his history, saying that “he showed not only humaneness and integrity in the imperial administrations, but also the most economical management and the most careful consideration for the public welfare.” He also pardoned many of those whom Commodus had killed unjustly and saw to their exhumations and proper burials. Many Romans immediately burst into tears for their family and friends, having been too frightened of Commodus even to mourn.

The Modest Princeps

Despite his newly found power, Pertinax remained circumspect and humble. He would not accept the title of Augusta for his wife or Caesar for his son. In fact, he refused to allow them to be raised in the palace. On his first day as emperor he divided all the wealth he had between the two of them and sent them to live with their grandfather in the country. He visited them there as often as he could, “but rather as their father than as emperor” (Cassius Dio, 8).

He was a somewhat portly older man with a long beard, though he maintained a regal bearing. Although he was not an immensely intelligent emperor, he enjoyed having literary discussions with his wife and a former teaching friend over dinner, and possessed enough skill in speaking to be described as suave. Though generally a kind and friendly emperor, Pertinax maintained a stingy nature, never throwing extravagant parties, serving less than luxurious fare in half portions, and having none of the over-generous qualities of some of his predecessors.

A Reign Cut Short

It was this quality that eventually caused Pertinax’s downfall, for the Praetorians began to feel that he had not given them their due, and he also forbade them from looting and despoiling defeated enemies. He made enemies within the palace as well with the freedmen and courtiers who had enjoyed lavish lifestyles under Commodus that Pertinax would not permit. Though the palace members had no means to stage an uprising, the Praetorians began to plot against him, headed by Laetus, the old prefect of the imperial guards who had first placed Pertinax on the throne.

They attempted a coup with the current consul, Falco, as the intended successor, but Pertinax discovered the plot. Even so, he would not allow the Senate to sentence Falco to death, but instead exiled him to the country. Laetus, however, took the failed rebellion as an opportunity. Executing many Praetorian soldiers who had been involved, he insisted that it was on the emperor’s orders, and thus worked them into a fury. A large group marched on the palace, and the disgruntled courtiers opened the gates and doors for them.

Rather than concealing himself or sending his personal guard to overwhelm them, Pertinax thought he could talk them down and went out to meet them. He was almost correct. Upon seeing him they were ashamed, lowering their eyes and sheathing their weapons. All except one soldier, who “leaped forward exclaiming, “The soldiers have sent you this sword,” and forthwith fell upon him and wounded him.” The other soldiers recovered their resolve and joined in, killing Pertinax and Eclectus, the chamberlain who had initially conspired against Commodus and now remained steadfastly loyal. He died attempting to defend his emperor.

Aftermath

Pertinax had reigned for only eighty-seven days. The soldiers, caught up in the excitement of their rebellious murder, mounted his head on a spike and carried it through the streets. However, Pertinax’s successor, Didius Julianus, did recover the body and give the former emperor a proper burial, and after the death of Julianus, the Senate declared Pertinax a god. Pertinax’s rule was an interestingly divided one. As much as the soldiers and his palace staff grew to hate him, the Senate and the people adored him, and were infuriated by his death.

His historical legacy remains a largely positive one, influenced by the eyewitness account of Cassius Dio who obviously held him in high regard. According to Cassius, Pertinax’s only true failing was his attempt to fix the problems of the empire too quickly. “He failed to comprehend, though a man of wide practical experience, that one cannot with safety reform everything at once, and that the restoration of a state, in particular, requires both time and wisdom.”

What to See in Savona now ?

While nothing remains of Roman Savo itself, a Roman villa can be found northeast of modern Savona in its own archeological park. The site is mainly limited to wall foundations, but it gives an idea of how large these farming hubs could be (The park now appears to be permanently closed to visitors. However, the villa walls and foundations can still be seen from outside the site). In Savona’s historical center, the local archeological museum in the medieval castle contains a good collection of pottery and tools used by the Celts who inhabited the area.

Savo on Timetravelrome App:

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Sources: Historia Augusta, Pertinax; Cassius Dio, Roman History

Header image: Pertinax Aureus minted btw 1st January – 28th March 193. Obverse: Laureate head of Pertinax right. Reverse: Aequitas standing l., holding scales and cornucopiae. Source: Numismatica Ars Classica NAC AG Auction 117 Lot 313. Picture is used by permission of NAC.

– Cassius Dio

Successful Career

As the son of a prominent noble family, Didius Julianus enjoyed opportunities that his predecessor, Pertinax, was forced to earn. He was raised in the home of Marcus Aurelius’s mother, Domitia Lucilla, and so received the support both of Domitia and of Marcus himself. He was made quaestor a year before the official legal age, and then later appointed aedile and then praetor. After commanding the Legio XXII Primigenia in Germania, he was given governorship of Gallia Belgica, which he administered well, including holding out against an attack by the Chauci tribe of Germania. He also served several other offices under Marcus Aurelius, and attained the position of consul.

Didius almost lost his life after Commodus succeeded his father as emperor. For while he was serving as superintendent of money grants to the poor of Italy, a soldier named Severus Clarissimus accused him of being in league with Salvius in his plot to kill the emperor. Commodus treated most perceived threats to his reign with brutality, but in this case he had already killed so many prominent noblemen that he feared he would soon cross the line and earn the opposition of the people, so he instead pardoned Didius, executed Severus Clarissimus, and gave Didius governorship of Bithynia. He became consul for the second time, and served it with Pertinax.

An Empire is Auctioned

At the time of Pertinax’s murder, Titus Flavius Claudius Sulpicianus, the father-in-law of Pertinax who was serving as consul, was in the Praetorian camp attempting to keep order. Some Praetorians began to suggest that Sulpicianus be named emperor, but Didius Julianus, hearing of the death of Pertinax, was eager to make his own attempt for the throne. Standing outside the gates of the camp, he started offering the soldiers sums of money if they would make him emperor. As a result, a fierce bidding war began between Sulpicianus and Julianus, as the Praetorians essentially sold Rome to the highest offer.

In the end, it was Didius Julianus who made the winning proposal, raising his bid by 5000 sesterces per soldier all at once, shocking the Praetorians and at the same time insinuating that Sulpicianus would seek to avenge the death of Pertinax. They threw their support behind Julianus at a price of 25,000 sesterces each. Escorted by the Praetorians, Julianus made his way to the Senate house to demand that they appoint him emperor. He gave an excellent speech in his own defense, but his claims of coming humbly before them alone to plead his case were undermined by his escort of Praetorians, who surrounded the Senate chambers and many had even joined him inside. Although the Senators feared and hated him, they were cowed into agreement, and made Julianus emperor.

Uneasy Ascension

Upon receiving imperial power from the Senate, Julianus went up to the palace. Pertinax’s dinner was still on the table. Julianus mocked the simple meal, and then sent out for expensive food for himself and his supporters. With Pertinax’s decapitated body still lying unattended in the building, they feasted and played dice late into the night. The Historia Augusta says that after this incident, Julianus did at least see to a proper burial for Pertinax, but he never spoke of him again and the Senators were too frightened to mention his name.

The people of Rome, however, were not nearly so cautious. They “went about openly with sullen looks, spoke their mind as much as they pleased, and were getting ready to do anything they could.” It all came to a head when Julianus prepared to make a sacrifice to Janus in the forum. The people began to shout at him, accusing him of parricide and stealing the empire. In an attempt to silence them, Julianus offered them money. Rather than calming the crowd, it only enflamed them more that he believed they could be bought, and they cried “We don’t want it! We won’t take it!” 

Julianus finally lost his temper and ordered the Praetorians to kill those standing closest to him. Even this did not silence the angry populace, “and it did not cease expressing its regret for Pertinax and abusing Julianus, invoking the gods and cursing the soldiers; but though many were wounded and killed in many parts of the city, they continued to resist.”

Pretense and Preparations

Having taken power through bribery, intimidation, and violence, Julianus now attempted to change his tune. He paid respects to the Senate, gave favors and banquets, and tried to court their support. He even tried to appear humble before them, for when the Senators voted to make a gold statue of him, he refused it, saying “Give me a bronze one, so that it may last; for I observe that the gold and silver statues of the emperors that ruled before me have been destroyed, whereas the bronze ones remain.” Cassius Dio noted that “he was mistaken, for it is virtue that preserves the memory of rulers; and in fact the bronze statue that was granted him was destroyed after his own overthrow.” Yet despite Julianus’s best efforts, the Senate remained sullen and suspicious, considering his actions to be ingenuous flattery.

In the meantime, rebellious elements were stirring in the Legions posted around the Empire. The most competent was Septimius Severus, governor of Pannonia. His soldiers declared him emperor, and he began to plan a march on Rome. Julianus compelled the Senate to name Severus as an enemy of the state, and attempted to send assassins to get rid of his rival, but they were unsuccessful. Concerned over the incoming enemy, Julianus made efforts to prepare a defense, much to the amusement of the still disgruntled Senate and people, for the Praetorians and local navy were soft from lack of action, and even the elephants threw their riders.

The end of Julianus

When Severus had reached Italy, and taken Ravenna without a fight, the Praetorians themselves grew frightened of the war hardened veterans marching their way. The men that Julianus sent to disrupt the ranks or murder Severus kept deserting and joining his soldiers, and they were exhausted from drilling and preparation, all of which seemed fruitless. Into this atmosphere, Severus sent a letter promising the Praetorians that if they surrendered the murderers of Pertinax, no further action would be taken against them. The Praetorians resolved to support Severus, and when the Senate learned of their decision, they sentenced Julianus to death as an enemy of Rome and voted to appoint Severus as emperor.

The Praetorians came upon him while he was reclining at the palace and killed him just as they had Pertinax – he had ruled for only two months and five days. His body was delivered to his wife and daughter and laid to rest in the family tomb on the Labican Way, and Septimius Severus became the next emperor of Rome, establishing the Severan Dynasty which ruled for the following four decades.

What to See in Roman Milan now ?

Fans of the ancient Roman world will delight in the numerous remnants that still survive in modern day Milan. Near the central Church of San Lorenzo, for example, stands a row of 16 ancient Corinthian columns. Most likely once part of one of the elaborate thermae of the vibrant ancient city, this colonnade extends to meet the medieval wall of the town that is still dotted with ancient Roman spolia. To the north, at the twelfth-century Port Nuova, one can also spy some ancient Roman fragmentary stele sculpture. Small portions of the Mediolanum’s amphitheater and imperial palace are visible within the Milanese landscape, with additional artistic examples and objects housed in the Civic Archaeological Museum.

It is possible for visitors to view the foundations of several small buildings from the civilian settlement, probably the residences of soldier’s families. These were discovered whilst excavating in the Michaelerplatz and have been left on permanent display. Although it is not possible to view much of Vienna’s Roman archaeology in situ, there are several museums with excellent Roman collections. These include the Wien Museum and the Romermuseum, which includes the remnants of two tribunes’s houses amongst its collection.

Milan on Timetravelrome App:

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Sources: Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus; Cassius Dio, Roman History

Header image: Bust of Didius Julianus in the Antiquarium (Münchner Residenz), photo by Sailko, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.