“Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale her infinite variety. Other women cloy the appetites they feed: but she makes hungry where most she satisfies.”

– Antony and Cleopatra, Shakespeare

Meeting on the Kydnos

Cleopatra was not deeply involved in the civil wars that immediately followed the assassination of Caesar, though she stayed in steadfast support of her former lover – whether from loyalty or a shrewd evaluation of the likely winners. Both Cassius, one of Caesar’s assassins, and Dolabella, a leader of the party loyal to Caesar, petitioned Cleopatra for support. Although she committed four legions to Dolabella, they were captured by Cassius and later Serapion, the governor of Cyprus appointed by Cleopatra, defected to the conspirators, leaving Cleopatra’s loyalties in doubt.

Cleopatra Gate in Tarsus. By CeeGee – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

In order to reaffirm her loyalties, Cleopatra set sail for Greece with a large, well-provisioned fleet, intending to aid Octavian and Antony in the war against Brutus and Cassius. Unfortunately, she ran into heavy weather off the coast of Libya that badly damaged her fleet and she was forced to limp back to Alexandria, herself suffering from illness. By the time she had recovered and gotten her fleet refitted, Octavian and Antony had triumphed over the conspirators at the Battle of Philippi and the war was won.

Ancient road in Tarsus. By CeeGee – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Octavian and Antony effectively split administration of the Roman provinces between the two of them, with Octavian controlling the western half and Antony the eastern. Antony set up headquarters in Tarsus, and summoned Cleopatra to pay him audience there. The queen initially refused, but eventually agreed to visit, and sailed from Alexandria and up the Kydnos River on lavishly decorated ships.

First Impressions

Cleopatra had every intention of making an unforgettable impression as she sailed up the river “in a barge with gilded poop, its sails spread purple, its rowers urging it on with silver oars to the sound of the flute blended with pipes and lutes. She herself reclined beneath a canopy spangled with gold, adorned like Venus in a painting, while boys like Loves in paintings stood on either side and fanned her. Likewise also the fairest of her serving-maidens, attired like Nereïds and Graces, were stationed, some at the rudder-sweeps, and others at the reefing-ropes. Wondrous odours from countless incense-offerings diffused themselves along the river-banks.”

The Disembarkation of Cleopatra at Tarsus by Claude Lorrain (1642). Public Domain.

The inhabitants of Tarsus whispered that Venus had arrived to join in revels with Bacchus, and so it proved. Cleopatra and her courtiers entertained Antony with opulent luxury aboard their ships, which were adorned in a myriad of draping lights. The next day, Antony gave a feast in return, but it paled in comparison with Cleopatra’s preparations the night before. Nevertheless, Cleopatra made light of the discrepancy, and charmed Antony with her ready intelligence and easy manner. Plutarch gave perhaps the most complete, yet succinct description of her abilities:

“Her beauty, as we are told, was in itself not altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who saw her; but converse with her had an irresistible charm, and her presence, combined with the persuasiveness of her discourse and the character which was somehow diffused about her behaviour towards others, had something stimulating about it. There was sweetness also in the tones of her voice; and her tongue, like an instrument of many strings, she could readily turn to whatever language she pleased.”

A Luxurious Affair

Antony was suitably enthralled by the charismatic queen, and granted her requests to execute both her own sister, Arsinoe IV, and the traitorous governor of Cyprus. She left Tarsus with an invitation to Antony to join her in Egypt, which he swiftly did. There the two enjoyed a luxurious affair, even creating their own association which they called “The Inimitable Livers,” and every day they feasted one another in costly fashion. The affair also produced offspring, a twin brother and sister whom Cleopatra named Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Unlike Caesar, Antony openly acknowledged the two as his own.

Mark Antony & Cleopatra. Circa 36-34 BC. AR Tetradrachm. Obv: diademed bust of Cleopatra right, wearing earring, necklace, and embroidered dress. Rev: bare head of Antony right. Used by permission of www.cngcoins.com

Octavian had little difficulty turning Antony’s dalliances in Egypt to his advantage back in Italy, where hostility was rising between the two former allies. Antony’s brother and his wife, Fulvia, even staged a failed coup against Octavian, which came to be known as the Perusine War. Though Fulvia escaped death in the uprising, she died soon after while exiled in Greece. Her death temporarily reconciled Antony and Octavian, and Octavian gave Antony his sister, Octavia, in marriage. Yet Antony soon enough left his new wife with his children by Fulvia and returned to Cleopatra in the east.

Egypt, The Egyptian Museum, children of Cleopatra and Marc Antony, Cleopatra Selene, Caesarion, limestone. Source: www.historytoday.com

When the rift between the two men began to grow once again, Octavian easily swayed public opinion against Antony by pointing to the latter’s obsession with Egypt and betrayal of his good, loyal Roman wife. The situation finally exploded in early 32 B.C., when Cleopatra convinced Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce. Octavian used this as a justification to seize Antony’s will and read it aloud, revealing to the fury of the Romans present that Antony intended to make Alexandria the capital of the Roman Republic. Octavian officially declared war on Cleopatra, not on Antony, though he knew that the latter would join Cleopatra in the fight.

Defeat and Death

The war was relatively short-lived. Antony and Cleopatra had lost numerous allies, and though their ships outnumbered Octavian’s, their crews were far less experienced and skilled. They met Octavian’s fleet, under the command of Marcus Agrippa, for battle outside their headquarters at Actium, and eventually suffered a major defeat. Both Antony and Cleopatra escaped from Actium, fleeing back to Egypt where they landed at Paraitonion and drifted apart. Antony vainly hoped to rally allies to his cause, and Cleopatra planned an escape to India by sea, a journey known to the Ptolemaic kings for generations. Her hopes were dashed, however, when Malichus I, King of Nabatea, burned the ships she had staged for the escape.

Relief commemorating the Battle of Actium discovered in Avellino. Carrara marble, Tiberian period. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Antony and Cleopatra waited anxiously in Alexandria for the arrival of Octavian, who received the surrender of Antony’s fleet and cavalry in early August of 30 B.C. Cleopatra hid in her tomb and sent a message to Antony that she had committed suicide. In despair and grief, he stabbed himself in the stomach. A stomach wound does not kill quickly, however, and Antony was brought, badly wounded, to the tomb, where Cleopatra lifted him with ropes, smeared with blood and struggling against overwhelming pain, over the great barrier at the entrance of the tomb. He died in her arms.

Dying Antony brought to Cleopatra. Eugène-Ernest Hillemacher. Public Domain.

Cleopatra attempted to negotiate with Octavian, first diplomatically and then romantically, but Octavian rejected her advances. Finally, learning that she was to be moved to Rome and refusing to be led in a Roman triumph, Cleopatra took her own life. Famously, she is said to have died by allowing a venomous snake, an asp, to bite her. Octavian allowed Cleopatra and Antony to be buried together, but their tomb has yet to be found.

What to See Here Now?

Tarsus:

There are several significant remains of antiquity to be seen in Tarsus, though the state of preservation varies with most in need of restoration and preservation. One of the most striking survivors from antiquity is the so-called “Cleopatra Gate” in the west of the city; according to legend this great arched gateway is the entrance into the city which was taken by Antony and Cleopatra. There is also an impressive bridge, dating to the Justinianic period (early 6th century), when the city was restored. It spans over the Berdan River and remains in good condition. The museums in Tarsus are rich in archaeological finds.

Tarsus, Cilicia, Turkey. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Paraitonion:

Paraitonion is a large archeological area, but perhaps the most well-known historical attraction is the Temple of Ramesses II. Also of note are the ruins of a Ptolemaic Era anchorage site in the harbor, and an early Coptic chapel of the Roman Period, perhaps from the 1st century, with several inscribed caves.

Abu Simbel Temples of Ramesses II and Nefertari. Taken by Than217, Public Domain.

Sources: Sources: Plutarch, Life of Caesar; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Appian, Civil Wars; Caesar, African Wars; Suetonius, Life of Caesar

Header image: The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra. By Lawrence Alma-Tadema – Sotheby's New York, 05 Mai 2011, lot 65, Public Domain.

Modern day Corfu, known in ancient times as Korkyra, is another island with a history steeped in mythology, from its origin story to its place in several more famous legends. Korkyra was one of the three most powerful maritime nations in the Classical world, joining Athens and Corinth in that distinction. Its original inhabitants are not well understood by historians, though traditional tales offer an explanation. However, by about 730 B.C., Korkyra had received an influx of Corinthian colonists. Despite this connection to Corinth, Korkyra remained largely at odds with her mother city, choosing instead to ally with Athens.

Roman Baths of Palaiopolis on Corfu, By Alkis Pappas – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

During the Hellenistic period, Korkyra endured several sieges and occupations, changing hands throughout the frequent wars and infighting that followed the death of Alexander the Great. With the rise of Rome, Korkyra became an important Roman naval base, eventually attached to the province of Macedonia. It served as Octavian’s base of operations leading up to his confrontation with Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Antium.

What’s in a Name

Korkyra has been given several names throughout history. Before being called Korkyra, the island was apparently known as Drepane, which means scythe. The name likely derived from the sickle shape of the island initially, but it has come to refer to other mythological moments. Apollonius indicates that the island’s name referred to the sickle that Cronus used to castrate his father, Uranus. The sickle was said to be hidden somewhere on the island, and the inhabitants, known as Phaeacians, descendants of Uranus’s blood. Another account says that the sickle hidden on the island belongs to Demeter.

Gorgon at the Artemis Temple pediment, By Dr.K. – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

The name Korkyra originally belonged to a beautiful nymph, daughter of the river-god Asopus and sister to Aegina, who also gave her name to a Mediterranean island. Poseidon fell deeply in love with Korkyra, and carried her off to the Grecian island, which in his rapture he named after his new lover. Poseidon and Korkyra had one son, Phaiax, whose name became that of the people of Korkyra, the Phaeacians. The name also may bear some link to the monstrous Gorgon, Medusa, slain by Perseus. An image of the Gorgon featured prominently on the west façade of the temple of Artemis on Korkyra.

Vue du site archéologique de Paleopoli à Corfou (Kardaki_Temple), By Jean Housen – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

A Hospitable Nation

Korkyra proved to be a welcoming and hospitable island, offering sanctuary to multiple famous figures in mythological accounts, including Jason and the Argonauts. A hero and heir descended from Hermes, Jason was challenged to retrieve the Golden Fleece in order to reclaim his rightful throne. After numerous adventures during their travels, Jason and his Argonauts arrived in Colchis. The king offered to surrender the Golden Fleece only if Jason performed three tasks – designed to be impossible. Luckily for Jason, the king’s sorceress daughter, Medea, had fallen for the mysterious stranger and assisted him in completing the tasks, absconding with the Golden Fleece, and fleeing the island. On their return journey, pursued by the Colchians, they landed at Korkyra and were welcomed by King Alcinoos. Jason and Medea were married on the island of Korkyra in “Medea’s Cave.”

Ruis of the roman baths in Palaiopolis, By Kritzolina – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

The same king also aided another, very famous hero. In Homer’s Odyssey, Odysseus and his men are shipwrecked near Korkyra and washed ashore on the island thanks to the guidance of Athena. The Princess Nausikaa, washing her clothes in a nearby stream with some friends, found Odysseus and brought him to her father. King Alcinoos not only gladly hosted the hero, but even presented him with the gift of a ship to take him back to his home in Ithaca. Unfortunately, the ship did not survive the journey, but was turned to stone by Poseidon, still infuriated at Odysseus for blinding one of his sons, the Cyclops.

Corcyra Stater 4th century BC. Obverse: Cow standing l., looking back at suckling calf standing r. below. Reverse: K – O – P Double stellate pattern, divided by double line, in linear square frame. Source: Classical Numismatic Group, www.cngcoins.com, used by permission of CNG.

Achilles’ Palace

One of the most famous modern structures on the island also has a connection to mythology, though only through admiration not through tradition. In 1890, the Empress of Austria built a summer palace on Korkyra called the Achilleion. The structure is meant to evoke ancient Grecian architecture and the sprawling palace is covered with paintings and statues dedicated to the great hero, Achilles.

Terrace of Achilleon, CC BY-SA 3.0.

What to See Here?

Korkyra’s Old Town is on the UNESCO World Heritage List, but much of this is a result of the medieval fortifications in the city that were built to protect it from invasions by Pirates and the Ottomans. That being said, there are a few traces of the city’s classical past to be seen.

The most prominent classical remnant in Korkyra is the Sanctuary of Artemis, near the Monastery of St Theodore. Dated to about 585 B.C., it is one of the most archaic pseudoperipteral – which simply means free-standing columns at the front, whereas the side columns are engaged, meaning they’re built into the cella wall – Doric order Temple. The temple’s significance derives from its mythological decoration.

Remnants of Artemis Sanctuary in Corfu, By Dr.K. – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Titanomachy at the Gorgon pediment at Artemis Temple in the Corfu museum. By Dr.K. – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

There are a few early Christian remains in Korkyra, including the Church of Haghia Kerkyra.
A range of sculptural remains, and other smaller-scale recoveries from the city, are display in the archaeological museum.

Ruins of Agia Kerkyra church or Paleopoli Basilica, By Marc Ryckaert (MJJR) – Own work, CC BY 3.0.

Kerkyra on TimeTravelRome:

Ancient Kerkyra is among hundreds of Classical sites featured in the TimeTravelRome app:

Header image: Горгона храм Артеміди Корфу (from the pediment of the Artemis Temple), By Liubomir G – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

No archeological tour of Italy would be complete without a visit to Tibur, modern Tivoli. The city has a long history, dating back to the 13^th century B.C., when colonists from Alba Longa settled on the site. Tibur held a tumultuous relationship with Rome before it fell to its southern neighbors. Rome granted citizenship to Tibur in 90 B.C., after which the city became a favorite for wealthy Romans. Its streets housed luxurious villas for many famous individuals, including the poet Horace, and possibly Catullus and Statius as well, Maecenas, Emperor Augustus, and Zenobia of Palmyra, among others.

However, the most famous villa at Tibur belonged to the Emperor Hadrian. His sprawling residence was built to house any number of politicians and so continue the business of state outside of Rome, as well as being a private getaway for the emperor, who, despite his public charisma, remained something of a recluse. Today, Tibur houses a number of magnificent archaeological structures, including segments of Hadrian’s spectacular 200 acre villa, of which only a portion has been excavated.

Founding Myths

Despite the relatively mundane official history of Tibur, the Romans, of course, enjoyed a more colorful version. According to Cato the Elder, Catillus the Arcadian, son of Amphiaraus founded the city. Amphiaraus had been a highly honored seer and king of Argos. The legends tell of a fateful attack on Thebes, immortalized by Aeschylus in 467 B.C. in his tragic play “Seven Against Thebes.” Upon learning of his terrible patricide and marriage to his mother, the infamous Oedipus blinded himself and cursed his two sons, dooming them to divide the kingdom through violence. The sons, Eteocles and Polynices, attempted to subvert the curse by agreeing to take turns ruling Thebes. However, after his first year of rule, Eteocles refused to hand the throne to his brother.

Scene from The Seven against Thebes by Aeschylus. By Caivano Painter – Wolfgang Sauber (User:Xenophon), own work, 2008-04-10. Image renamed from Image:7 gegen Theben.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Polynices subsequently went to Argos. He bribed the wife of Amphiaraus, Eriphyle, with a necklace that had belonged to the daughter of Aphrodite. In exchange, she convinced her husband to join Polynices’ campaign against his brother. Despite knowing that the attack would fail, Amphiaraus fought bravely, but was eventually slaughtered along with the others. The Tiburtines believed that Amphiaraus had a son named Catillus who had accompanied him to Thebes. Catillus managed to escape the slaughter, and fled to Italy, where he established the colony of Tibur.

Conflict with Rome

During Etruscan times, Tibur was a Sabine city. Though initially friendly with Rome, in 361 B.C., the city allied itself with the invading Gauls. After the Romans defeated the Gallic invaders before the Colline Gate of Rome, the Gauls fled past Tibur. As they did so, some Tiburtines came out to watch, and pursuing Romans killed them as they passed. Because of this, consul Caius Poetilius Balbus celebrated a triumph over both the Gauls and the Tiburtines. The Tiburtines merely laughed at his triumph, asking when he had ever faced them in open battle.

Details of the antique walls of the city of Tivoli dating from the 4th century BC. By LPLT – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Accordingly, soon after, a group of Tiburtines marched on Rome, but they had been hoping for a surprise attack. The Romans were alerted, and soon attacked, driving the Tiburtines to flight. In the campaign that followed, Rome soundly defeated Tibur, and took several cities from them before the two cities negotiated a truce. In 338 B.C., Tibur officially became a part of Roman territory. Sections of the city’s defensive walls from this era remain in modern Tivoli.

Prophecy of the Tiburtine Sibyl

One of Tibur’s most famous individuals was the Tiburtine Sibyl, a respected oracle who contributed to the Sibylline Oracles of Rome. Ruins of her temple exist to this day. Ancient writers told of her encounter with Augustus, where he asked her if he should be worshipped as a god. Later Christian writers particularly enjoyed recounting this tale, and added that in reply she told him of a vision of Mary with the infant Jesus, sitting in prominence in the city of Rome.

General view of the temple of Vesta (left) and the temple of Sibyl (right) in Tivoli. By LPLT – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

The most famous piece by the Tiburtine Sibyl was her graphic and detailed prophecy of the end of days. It was a bestseller, and a number of scholars re-copied it throughout the medieval era, with probable errors and misinterpretations. However, it appears that the prophecy came to the sibyl as dream. In it, she saw nine suns in the sky, which represented nine generations of mankind. Each sun appeared more ugly and bloodstained than the one before it, and following the last sun came judgment day.

What to See Here?

Few places in the world are able to capture the extravagant and monumental extremes of Roman luxury like Tivoli. The area is simply bursting with magnificent sites. The most famous is without doubt Hadrian’s Villa, built in the first couple of decades of the second century AD. By 128 AD, it seems the 250-acre villa complex had become Hadrian’s official residence, connected to the capital via an efficient postal network and able to accommodate any number of emissaries or guests an emperor might have to entertain. Much of the villa remains unexcavated, but what is visible is truly magnificent. The remains of the Island Villa capture what was most likely the most beautiful pat of the emperor’s grand design, while the vast complex of baths, fountains, statues and even a theatre pay testament to the imperial scale of the project.

Tivoli – Wall of the Poikile of Hadrian’s Villa. By Patrik Kunec – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

As well as Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli is also home to the Temple of Vesta. Idyllically situated atop the ancient acropolis in Tivoli’s countryside, this circular temple dates to the first century BC. As is visible from an inscription on the temple’s architrave, one Lucius Gellius is to be credited either for constructing or restoring the temple. In its near vicinity lies another rectangular temple, often attributed to the Tiburtine Sibyl, while just outside the boundary of the ancient city lie the ruins of the expansive Sanctuary of Hercules the Winner (dating from the second century BC) and Temple of the Tosse (probably dating to the fourth century AD).

The Canopus, Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli. By Carole Raddato from FRANKFURT, Germany. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Tivoli in the Timetravlerome app

Tivoli and Hadrian’s villa are covered in the Timetravelrome app: all main monuments in the Hadrian’s villa are mapped and described.

Sources: Cato the Elder, Origines – quoted by Gaius Julius Solinus; Livy, History of Rome; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian.

Header image: PanoramaMaritimeTheater, photo by DerPaul – Own work, licensed under CC BY 3.0

Trapped in Greece

Antony had been enjoying his rule and his lavish lifestyle from the ancient city of Alexandria in Egypt. He had also been enjoying the attentions of Cleopatra, Egypt’s queen, despite his previous marriage to Octavian’s sister. Octavian used Antony’s dalliances to great advantage back in Rome, vilifying Antony for his unfaithfulness. It helped his cause even further that Octavia remained the picture of a noble Roman wife, devotedly caring for her and Antony’s children even as Antony made plans to divorce her and marry his Egyptian queen. Antony’s devotion to Cleopatra proved much of his undoing. Octavian was able to convince most of the Senate that Antony intended to undermine the power of Rome and hand control to foreigners in the East.

As conflict became inevitable, Antony and Cleopatra moved their forces to Greece, positioning the main strength of their navy in the port of Actium. Moving quickly, Octavian moved his forces by ship across the Adriatic Sea to attack Antony in Greece. Landing much of the army north of Actium, Octavian led his soldiers to cut off Antony and Cleopatra’s escape route by land. Meanwhile, Agrippa, commanding the navy, blockaded the port and cut off the supply lines. As the siege continued and Antony’s position grew worse, his soldiers deserted him in large numbers to Octavian. Eventually Cleopatra, who commanded her own ships in Antony’s fleet, convinced Antony and his generals that they should abandon the fortified positions in Greece and escape by boat back to Egypt. From there, they could launch a much stronger defense.

Escape from Actium

Octavian learned of their plan from deserters of Antony’s camp. As a result, he believed that he should allow Antony and Cleopatra to slip past but prepare to attack them from behind. This way, when he proved to their men that they intended to flee, he hoped to win over the soldiers to his cause with little fighting and bloodshed. However, he capitulated to the advice of Agrippa, who knew the ships better and feared that if Antony and Cleopatra came past in their lightest ships, the slower Roman vessels would not be able to catch them. As a result, Octavian prepared his vessels for a full confrontation. Soon after, Antony and Cleopatra led their fleet out of the port at Actium. However, they made no attempt to engage until Octavian and Agrippa moved to surround them. Forced reluctantly into battle, they advanced to meet their enemies.

“[Octavian’s] followers, having smaller and swifter ships, would dash forward and ram the enemy, being armoured on all sides to avoid receiving damage. If they sank a vessel, well and good; if not, they would back water before coming to grips, and would either ram the same vessels suddenly again, or would let those go and turn their attention to others…The enemy, on the other hand, tried to hit the approaching ships with dense showers of stones and arrows, and to cast iron grapnels upon their assailants. And in case they could reach them they got the better of it, but if they missed, their own boats would be pierced and would sink, or else in their endeavour to avoid this calamity they would waste time and lay themselves more open to attack by other ships.”

Flight and Defeat

In this way, the battle continued indecisive for a long while. Eventually, a sudden decision by Cleopatra began to turn the tide. Hoping for an escape, and with the wind turning favorably for them to sail toward Egypt, she unexpectedly turned her flagship from the battle and signaled for her followers to do the same. Thinking that they were running because they thought the battle lost, Antony also turned and fled. His remaining vessels grew confused and disheartened, and made to raise their sails and follow. Yet while they made these preparations, Octavian and Agrippa attacked, and the close quarters fighting turned brutal and bitter. When the battle still remained undecided, Octavian’s forces reluctantly turned to their final resort. Sending flaming arrows and missiles onto the enemy ships, they set them ablaze. 

“When the fire spread, the most terrible of fates came upon them. Some, and particularly the sailors, perished by the smoke before the flame so much as approached them, while others were roasted in the midst of it as though in ovens. Others were consumed in their armour when it became heated.  There were still others, who, before they should suffer such a death, or when they were half-burned, threw off their armour and were wounded by the shots which came from a distance, or again leaped into the sea and were drowned, or were struck by their opponents and sank. Those alone found a death that was tolerable, considering the sufferings which prevailed, who were killed by their fellows in return for the same service, or else killed themselves, before any such fate could befall them; for they not only had no tortures to endure.”

Founding of Nicopolis

Knowing they would not be able to catch the fleeing Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian and Agrippa made no immediate move to do so. Instead, they first celebrated their victory, establishing a festival in honor of the battle and also founding the city of Nicopolis on the site where Octavian had made his camp. The city prospered as a successful center for commerce and eventually became the capital of the Roman province of Epirus Vetus under Emperor Trajan. Nicopolis took damage from an earthquake in 375 B.C., and then at the hands of maurading Goths, Huns, and Vandals. It was restored by Emperor Justinian in the mid-6^th century, but eventually lost its economic pre-eminence to the city of Preveza in the Middle Ages.

What to See Here:

Modern visitors can enjoy a a wealth of archaeological remains of ancient Nicopolis. The site is referred to as Palaea Preveza (Old Preveza). It is bounded by the remains of the defensive fortifications. They are a combination of the original Augustan structures and the Justinianic rebuilds. To the west, there is an Odeion, the impressive remains of the city’s Hadrianic aqueduct, and a bath building. There are also the remains of the stadium which was the venue for the famous Actian Games. These are the games that the Emperor Nero was so victorious in during his tour of the Hellenistic provinces in the mid-1st century A.D. The remains of the villa of Manius Antoninus are notable for the splendour of the mosaics that have survived. The nearby Archaeological Museum of Nicopolis is rich in the finds from the site and worth a visit.

Nikopolis on Timetravelrome App:

Sources:  Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Cassius Dio, Roman History.

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Battle of Actium, a painting by Lorenzo A. Castro, now in Royal Museums Greenwich. The image is in the public domain.

Desperate Taxation

On the fateful Ides of March in 44 B.C., Julius Caesar lay dead, assassinated by fellow Senators. Unfortunately, the conspirators had given little thought to their next moves after the murder. Caesar’s friends and family were able to arouse the people in sympathy. They turned the Republic against the very men who proclaimed they had saved it. Mark Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus joined together to form the Second Triumvirate and take charge of Rome. Together, they waged a long war against the assassins of Caesar. By 46 B.C. they were drowning under the overwhelming expenses of the protracted campaign.

Their solution was not a popular one. Following in the footsteps of the dictator Sulla, they began mass proscriptions. They condemned numerous men to death as traitors, and confiscated their means and property. It was a tumultuous time of shifting allegiances, but many of those proscribed were suspiciously wealthy, and their crimes against the state rather nebulous and unspecified. The proscriptions brought significant money into the war fund, but not as much as the triumvirate had hoped. They next instituted a tax on 1400 of the richest women in Rome. The women chosen had to make a full valuation of all of their property, and the triumvirs would name the amount required from each woman. Any that attempted to hide assets must pay fines to the informants that had betrayed them.

Hortensia the Orator

Many women gathered in protest, and considered it most appropriate to appeal to the women of the three triumvirs. They obtained audience with Octavia, Octavian’s beloved sister, and also with Antony’s mother. Both were kind and allowed them to speak their concerns. When they approached Fulvia, Antony’s wife, she refused to see them, and sent them away with unbelievable rudeness. Frustrated and upset, they took advantage of an old law allowing women to speak publically in times of war, and forced their way into the forum to openly address the three triumvirs themselves. 

The woman they had elected to speak on their behalf was Hortensia. She was the daughter of Quintus Hortensius, a wealthy and well-educated man who was well-known as a great orator. In fact, he was the principal rival to the famous Cicero himself. With such a father, it is unsurprising that Hortensia also possessed a gift with words. Her father taught her Greek and Latin literature from a very young age. As she grew older, she concentrated her studies on rhetoric and oration as her father had. She was married and had one daughter, but after her husband’s death in 67 B.C., she returned her focus to the study of oration. 

Speech Before the Magistrates

On that day in 42 B.C., she stood bravely in the forum and rebuked the three triumvirs. “You have already deprived us of our fathers, our sons, our husbands, and our brothers, whom you accused of having wronged you; if you take away our property also, you reduce us to a condition unbecoming our birth, our manners, our sex. If we have done you wrong, as you say our husbands have, proscribe us as you do them… But why do we share the penalty when we did not share the guilt? “Why should we pay taxes when we have no part in the honours, the commands, the state-craft, for which you contend against each other with such harmful results?” 

The triumvirs initially responded angrily, and demanded that their lictors drive the women from the Forum. Yet the crowds in the Forum Romanum, impressed by Hortensia’s speech, raised a protest. The triumvirs cooled their tempers, and said they would consider the matter and return a decision the following day. They did indeed concede the issue to a degree, reducing the number of women required to pay the tax from 1400 to 400, and also instituting a tax on all men of a certain level of wealth. 

The angry crowd may have influenced their backpedaling, but it is likely that the triumvirs also gave thought to Hortensia’s articulate argument. Contemporary men of learning praised her speech, style, and skill. Valerius Maximus wrote that the great Quintus Hortensius lived again through the words of his daughter. Hortensia was one of only three women ever recorded to have spoken publically before the magistrates of Rome. Her courage and intelligence that day won her a small victory against the powerful 2^nd triumvirate. 

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Photo: Forum Romanum Rom by Stefan Bauer, http://www.ferras.at is licensed under  CC BY-SA 2.5

Sources: Appian, Civil Wars; Valerius Maximus, Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilia.

What to See Here?

Along with the Colosseum (and perhaps the Pantheon), the Roman Forum is the site most representative of ancient Rome. It is home to temples, triumphal arches, religious sites, and civic structures. Structures date all the way back from the archaic and regal periods (with monuments such as the Regia and the Niger Lapis) and right up to the early seventh century AD (with the Forum’s last addition, the Column of Phocas). In the Roman Forum, the problem is not what to see but what you have time to see. From the Arch of Titus that greets you at the top of the Via Sacra right through to the Arch of Septimius Severus that stands near the slopes of the Capitoline, archaeological treasures litter the area. That said, many of its older (and often more interesting) monuments are ruined almost beyond recognition.

In terms of physical remains, the most impressive monuments in the Roman Forum are the third century Curia Julia and Arch of Septimius Severus, the skeletal structure of the temples of Vespasian and Saturn, and the enigmatic yet intriguing site of the Temple of Vesta and House of the Vestals. The key to the Roman Forum is to read and to explore, and to take the time to understand what it is you’re looking at—at least as best as possible, given the often-flimsy nature of the evidence. Do this, and you’ll find something amongst its ancient ruins that brings the glory of ancient Rome to life. 

To find out more: Timetravelrome.