Scipio Arrives in Africa 

While Masinissa had been fighting in Africa, Scipio had been fighting the Roman Senate. He finally received permission, and set sail for Africa. Hearing of Scipio’s impending arrival, Syphax and the Carthaginians tried to lure Masinissa into a trap with a fake offer of peace. They hoped to remove the threat of the young warlord before Scipio arrived. However, Masinissa turned the deceit back onto them. He pretended that he wished to meet, but actually headed at full speed to Scipio at the coast. Together, the two generals began wreaking havoc upon the Carthaginian forces. The first battle took place before the Carthaginians even knew that Scipio had landed. Masinissa and his Numidians drew them out of their defensible city and into a trap laid by the Romans. 

In a subsequent action, Masinissa’s forces rode in to set fire to the huts of Syphax’s men. The Carthaginians woke, confused, and went to aid their allies, unaware that the blaze was due to enemy actions. Dazed and unarmed, they were easy prey for the waiting Romans. 40,000 Carthaginians and Numidians died, and 5000 captured. While the Carthaginians desperately regrouped, Scipio and Masinissa took city after city. In another major fight, the Carthaginians suffered crushing defeat again, and fled back toward Carthage. The frightened Carthaginian Senate finally ordered Hannibal to halt his attack on Italy and return to defend his home. 

The Charms of Sophonisba

Meanwhile, Masinissa re-entered Massylian territory, and his people enthusiastically welcomed him. Yet Syphax was not ready to give up. He brought his forces into battle with Masinissa, and in the fighting, fell from his horse and fell captive. Masinissa and his cavalry rode ahead to Cirta, the capital city, and informed them of Syphax’s capture. They refused to believe him at first, until Masinissa brought Syphax up and showed him, bound in chains. The city officials were grieved and frightened, and they decided their best course of action was to mollify Masinissa.  They opened the gates and handed over the city without any further fighting. When Masinissa entered the royal palace, Sophonisba threw herself at his feet and begged for mercy. 

She rekindled Masinissa’s earlier passion for her, and he married her immediately. He vowed to protect her and to save her from the shame of being paraded in a Roman triumph. When Scipio learned of this, he handled the situation tactfully, due to his deep friendship with Masinissa. He publically praised Masinissa’s exploits, and then took him aside to privately rebuke him. Masinissa may have stood firm in the face of angry reproach, but he crumbled at Scipio’s loving appeal to the trust, friendship, and bond between the two of them. Distraught at having betrayed his friend, Masinissa withdrew to his tent in tears. After much thought, he offered Sophonisba poison. It was the only way he could honor his promise to her, while upholding his duty to Scipio. She accepted, and Masinissa was heartbroken at her death. 

War Ends

Soon after, Scipio called Masinissa before the full assembled army.  “Addressing Masinissa as king and eulogizing him in the highest possible terms, he presented him with a golden crown, curule chair, an ivory sceptre and also with a purple-bordered toga and a tunic embroidered with palms. He enhanced the value of these gifts by informing him that the Romans considered no honour more splendid than that of a triumph, and that no more magnificent insignia were borne by triumphing generals than those which the Roman people deemed Masinissa, alone of all foreigners, worthy to possess.” The Senate confirmed Scipio’s declaration of Masinissa as the King of the Numidians. He continued to aid Scipio against the Carthaginians. Scipio so valued Masinissa that at the final battle at Zama, he delayed the action until his friend arrived. 

The two men stayed close throughout their lives, and Masinissa remained an unwaveringly loyal ally of Rome. He sent cavalry to aid Rome on multiple occasions, often sending even more soldiers than requested.  He outlived his old friend Scipio, who died relatively early at the age of fifty-three. Masinissa ruled Numidia for fifty-four years from his capital at Cirta, and the kingdom thrived under his leadership. He fathered his final son at eighty-six, and at eighty-seven he was still personally leading his armies into battle. When he reached the age of ninety, he felt he did not have long left. He sent for Scipio Aemilianus, the grandson of his old friend. In a fitting tribute to his friendship with Scipio, he left the division of his kingdom and the care of his children all in the hands of Aemilianus. 

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Sources: Livy, History of Rome; Appian, The Foreign Wars; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History; Polybius, The Histories.

What to See Here?

Very few Roman remains have survived at Cirta. The only substantial piece of ancient architecture within the city is part of a rampart, preserved at the citadel. Outside the city, archaeologists have discovered inscriptions that indicate the presence of a sanctuary dedicated to Saturn. There is also evidence of a 1st century BC dwelling. A deep canyon (created by the Rhummel-wadi) runs through the middle of the city. Fragmentary remains of several bridges still stand in this valley. Further along are a few arches of the city’s aqueduct.

Smaller Artifacts recovered from Cirta, including a beautiful mosaic, are on display in the Musée National Cirta.

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

An Errant Nephew

Following the defeat at Carthago Nova, Hasdrubal Barca returned to Carthage to raise more troops, leaving Masinissa in sole control of cavalry operations in Spain. For the next two years, Masinissa waged a largely successful guerilla war against Scipio. Though he could not hope to achieve total victory, he greatly hampered Scipio’s progress. The two generals grew to respect one another’s skills, and a chance encounter helped Scipio earn even greater regard from the young Numidian warlord. Following a skirmish, the Romans learned that one of their Numidian prisoners was of royal blood. They brought the frightened boy before Scipio, and explained that he was Massiva, the orphaned nephew of Masinissa himself. He had joined the campaign to Spain, but Masinissa would not allow the boy to participate in a battle. 

On that day, however, without his uncle’s knowledge, Massiva had found weapons and snuck into the action. He had been captured when his horse fell and the impact threw him from the animal. Scipio made no demands or conditions, but merely asked whether the boy would like to return to his uncle. Massiva burst into tears, replying in the affirmative, and Scipio not only sent him safely back with his own cavalry escort for as far as he wished, but gave him a gold ring, purple-bordered tunic, and a beautiful horse, adorned with the finest tack. Masinissa was overjoyed to find his nephew unharmed, and deeply grateful to Scipio for his return.

The Battle of Ilipa

In the spring of 206 B.C., Hasdrubal Barca returned from Africa with reinforcements. The Carthaginians, together with their Numidian allies, marched from Gades with a force of around 70,000 men. They outnumber the Romans by about 20,000. The two armies encamped near Ilipa, and spent the next few days lining up for battle without engaging. Each day Scipio had his men take their time and line up after the Carthaginians.  He always placed his Roman legions in the center of his line and his Spanish allies on the two wings. When he was convinced that the Carthaginians had taken the bait, Scipio ordered his men fed and prepared before daylight, then lined up for battle close to the Carthaginian camp, with his line swapped, Romans on the wings and allies in the center. Taken by surprise, the Carthaginians rushed to form up.

They placed their best soldiers in the center and their allies on the outside, believing that Scipio had arranged his army as before. By the time they realized their mistake, it was too late to reform. Their soldiers had also not had breakfast, a fact Scipio exploited by drawing the battle out longer. Eventually he sent in in his wings to attack quickly, holding the center back. The highly trained Roman soldiers overwhelmed the less experienced Iberians. Meanwhile the best Carthaginian soldiers were unable to aid their comrades for fear of the lagging Roman center. The Carthaginian line crumbled, and a sudden heavy fall of rain enabled them to reach shelter in their camp. All through the night, the Spanish allies deserted to the Roman cause, and in the morning, the Romans attacked the surviving Carthaginian infantry, leaving only 6,000 alive. 

New Friendships

Scipio next marched for Gades, where the remaining Carthaginian forces were gathering. Upon hearing of Scipio’s impending arrival, Masinissa was determined to meet him. He told the Carthaginian general Mago that he and his soldiers needed to go on a sortie to condition their horses and plunder supplies, and he sent three of his Numidians to request an audience with Scipio. The two men met in mutual admiration. Masinissa began with thanks for the return of his nephew, going on to say that he had been looking for a chance to express his gratitude in person ever since that day. He was impressed by Scipio’s abilities on the battlefield, disillusioned with his former allies, and felt sure that he could be of service to Scipio in Africa, and help ensure a quick defeat of Carthage. 

Scipio “watched him and listened to him with great pleasure. He knew that Masinissa was the master-spirit in all the enemy’s cavalry, and the youth’s whole bearing showed high courage” (Livy). The two young generals quickly developed a mutual affection, and ended the meeting by pledging loyalty to one another. Masinissa returned to Gades, but soon sailed for Africa, having received word that his father, the king, had died. Mago made one ill-fated attempt to recapture Carthago Nova by sea, and when he returned to Gades, found that the people had revolted, and held the gates shut against him. They welcomed Scipio and the Romans. Carthage had lost its hold on Spain, and Scipio returned to Rome to seek approval for an African campaign. Meanwhile, Masinissa faced his own trials back in Numidia, as he fought to retain his royal inheritance. 

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Photo: Jan Styka – Nero at Baiae by Jan Stykais licensed under  CC0

Sources: Livy, History of Rome; Polybius, The Histories

What to See Here?

Already by the fourth century, when the writer Avienus visited the site, Gades lay in ruins. But despite its early destruction and subsequent redevelopment, ancient traces still remain. You can still see vestiges of the ancient city wall. But Cádiz’s most famous ancient site is its Roman theatre, one of the largest in the Roman world. 

It was built by the first century aristocrat Lucius Cornelius Balbus and designed to hold 20,000 spectators. It is also one of the few provincial theatres described in the ancient literature, mentioned by both Cicero and the contemporary geographer Strabo. A statue of the eminent Roman citizen responsible for building it still stands in the centre to this day. 

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

“But though I am almost heart-broken at the orphanhood and desolation of our house, the good fortune and courage of our race forbid me to despair of the State…In the midst of this utter collapse one thing stood unshaken and unimpaired, the courage of the Roman people; it and it alone raised up and sustained all that lay prostrate in the dust.”

Scipio’s target for the commencement of his campaign in Spain was the city of New Carthage, modern day Cartagena. It is a stunningly ancient settlement. Nearby caves show evidence of habitation by members of the Homo genus as far back as 1,300,000 years ago. The city itself has revealed remains from the Upper Paleolithic Era and onward. When the Carthaginians landed, the city, then known as Mastia, had one of the best harbors in Spain. It sat on the tip of an isthmus, surrounded by water on three sides and protected by the relatively narrow opening of the bay. Hasdrubal renamed it Qart Hadasht, “New City,” and used it as the main base for his Spanish campaign. 

It housed the Carthaginian army’s supply line, their stores of weapons and armor, and their war treasury. The city also imprisoned hostages from all of the powerful families in Spain. They were insurance for Carthage to prevent the defection of the tribes. Though strongly fortified and defended, taking the city would massively boost Roman supplies, morale, and allegiances. Carthage’s three generals were frustrated with one another, scattered around Spain, and all at least a ten day’s march away. Scipio led his army out of their winter quarters early. He kept their final destination secret from all but Laelius, his closest lieutenant.

Under Attack

Scipio camped with about 27,000 of his men on the isthmus’s base, cutting off any aid from land. At the same time, his navy moved into position to block the mouth of the bay. Taken by surprise and with the majority of the soldiers away, the city’s defensive attributes quickly became a danger. The Carthaginian general Mago was in charge, and he had only 1,000 trained soldiers and 2.000 armed citizens. Nevertheless, he ordered a counter-attack through the city’s east gate. As he had hoped, the isthmus limited the number of Roman soldiers able to fight at once. For a time, the battle was fierce and evenly matched. Yet the longer the battle raged, the more the Carthaginians struggled. The Romans were able to constantly rotate their soldiers, sending fresh troops forward to relieve their tired comrades. 

Eventually, the Carthaginian line broke, and they fled back through the gate, hotly pursued. The Roman soldiers likely would have followed them right into the city, but Scipio called them back. He had been watching the full scene of the battle from a small hillock, and feared to endanger his men with such a bottlenecked attack. He also saw that the city walls were poorly manned. Commanding a full scale assault, he rode down among his men to encourage them and give orders as necessary. Inspired to have their general in among them, they attacked fiercely, heedless of the many arrows and missiles being flung down at them. Yet few of the siege ladders were long enough the reach the heights of the city walls. Those that were, were unstable when men reached the top. Many toppled and fell, and soon Scipio again called his men back. 

The City Falls

The Carthaginians did not have time to rest, however. The Romans pulled out their tired and wounded soldiers and sent in fresh troops to attack once again. Meanwhile, Scipio was able to implement some useful knowledge he had ascertained about the area. Local fishermen had informed him that the lagoon on the north side of the city could be easily crossed on foot at low tide. Now his informants came to tell him that low tide was upon them. With fresh soldiers on the isthmus, the navy redoubling their efforts to the west and south, and Scipio leading 500 men unexpectedly across the lagoon, the city came under attack from all sides at once.  Though those on the isthmus continued to struggle, fortifications were almost non-existent to the north. 

The city defenses relied on the lagoon waters for protection, and the citizens were so absorbed with the battle to the east, that they had no idea the Romans were within the walls until they were attacked from behind. The defenders abandoned the walls and fled, some to high ground in the city, others to the citadel. No longer opposed, the Romans broke through on all sides. They took the town violently; killing every man they encountered to instill fear in future enemies. The slaughter continued unabated, until finally Mago surrendered the citadel, and Scipio ordered his soldiers to stand down. Almost all of the 3,000 active defenders died in the battle. The Romans freed some of the citizens returned their goods to them, but enslaved most of the population. Scipio renamed the city Carthago Nova, literally “New New City,” to separate it from Carthage in Africa. 

New Friends

As Scipio had promised, Carthago Nova yielded rich plunder, all the Carthaginian supplies plus the city’s own rich resources. Most important strategically to Scipio were the many hostages of local tribes. Rather than taking over control of them and demanding their families switch allegiances, he diplomatically treated them with the greatest respect. He sent messengers to their families, inviting them to come to Carthago Nova to reclaim their relations. When an older woman made a plea to him on behalf of the girls in her charge, he reassured her kindly and ensured their safety. He learned that another beautiful young woman was betrothed to a Celtiberian noble named Aluccius, who loved her dearly and was in agony over her safety. Scipio called the young man to him, and reunited the pair, asking only for friendship. 

The girl’s parents had brought a large amount of gold in order to try to pay her ransom. When Scipio returned her freely, they begged him to take it anyway in gratitude. He accepted the gift, and then presented it to Aluccius as a wedding present. Aluccius and his bride returned home, and a few days later he returned at the head of 1,400 of his countrymen, pledging allegiance to Scipio. Scipio’s character and kindness served him well, and he won many friends and allies who respected him. His bold stroke had paid off, Carthage suffered a rough blow, and Roman morale soared. Scipio spent the following months skirmishing with the Carthaginians and their Numidian allies, while even more Spanish tribes flocked to join Rome. Scipio’s policy towards hostages served him particularly well in earning the respect of Masinissa some months later….

What to See Here?

Cartagena has no shortage of Roman remains. Many have become interpolated either within or on the face of its subsequent buildings. However, there are plenty of well-preserved independent sites too: the Augusteum (a college for the imperial cult) sits in the heart of the historical centre alongside the remains of the Roman Forum and the Casa de la Fortuna—arguably the best example of a luxury Roman villa in the world. The main Roman landmark is the amphitheatre: a wonderful architectural feat dating from 5 – 1 BC to which the city’s archaeological museum is attached. Just on the outskirt of the historical centre is the Torre Ciega: a monument dating from the first century BC that formed part of an enormous Roman necropolis.

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Sources: Livy, History of Rome; Polybius, The Histories; Diodorus Sicuslus, Library of History; Polyaenus, Strategems; Cassius Dio, Roman History.

Header Photo: Teatro Romano by Linda Castañedais licensed under  CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

“It was the confidence with which he had in this way inspired his fellow-citizens that led them to entrust to him, young as he was, a task of enormous difficulty, and a command which involved the gravest responsibilities.” 

A deep despair hung over the city of Rome following the death of the Scipio brothers. The Roman Senate planned an election day to choose a new commander in Spain. Yet not one Roman presented himself as a potential candidate. On the day of the election, the citizens gathered aimlessly, looking to the magistrates for guidance. They gloomily whispered among themselves. The Republic’s state of affairs was so desperate that no one dared to take the command in Spain. Just as they began to lose all hope, Publius Cornelius Scipio, son and nephew of the slain generals, stepped forward. Standing on a small rise in sight of all, he announced himself as a candidate. The citizens met him with cheers of delight, and the election on the Campus Martius was unanimously decided.

Young Scipio

Almost immediately after the decision, as soon as the enthusiastic fervor had dissolved, there was a sudden silence. The people began to question their decision. After all, Scipio was only twenty-four. Yet despite his youth, he had at least already proven his character. At only seventeen, Scipio had gone with his father to the Battle of Ticinus, the first skirmish in Italy following Hannibal’s famous crossing of the Alps. Scipio’s father put him in reserve on a small hill with a group of hand-picked cavalry. Yet in the middle of the battle, Scipio spotted his father, surrounded by the enemy and badly wounded. He tried to convince the others to join him in an attack. When they refused, he charged alone, forcing them to follow. The rush broke up the enemy, and saved the small group of encircled Romans.  

The Elder Scipio tried to present his son with the Civic Crown, a very high honor. One could only win it by directly saving the life of another Roman in battle. Young Scipio refused the honor, saying that the action of saving his father was its own reward. The act firmly proved his reputation for courage, an important trait for a Roman general. The Greek historian Polybius argues that this initial, foolhardy act of bravery was an important part of Scipio’s success. It allowed Scipio to be more prudent in later years, with no fear that any would question his courage.  For his bravery at Ticinus, he received a post as a military tribune at an early age. In that capacity, he was present at the disastrous Battle of Cannae. In the aftermath, Scipio helped to keep the survivors together and to quiet murmurings of mutiny. 

Election Day

Scipio’s movements following the Battle of Cannae are unknown until his bold statement on the Campus Martius. As the excitement of the election died down, Scipio saw the growing anxiety in the crowd. He was young and untested. Some muttered that his family had met with such misfortune, perhaps merely his name was a poor omen.  Scipio quickly took steps to quell their worry. In a rousing speech, he inspired their confidence once again. Livy remarked specifically on this ability of Scipio’s to motivate the enthusiasm of those around him. The historian says he spoke in a bold and assured tone, but never came across as arrogant. Rather his dignity and earnest sincerity gave him a humble self-confidence that all admired. 

He also seems to have possessed a wry side to his character. After rousing the people, he added that he would willingly yield the post to any of his elders. Of course, none came forward to claim it, and Scipio maintained the command. The Senate gave him 10,000 infantry and 1000 cavalry to reinforce what soldiers still remained in Spain. He set sail from the mouth of the Tibur, landing on Spanish coastline and proceeding to Tarraco. There he met with deputations from all the remaining allied Iberian tribes. They advised him of the situation in Spain, the moving allegiances of the Spanish tribes, and the abilities of Carthaginian generals that he faced. They also told him of the intelligent, astute, and dangerous commander of the Numidian cavalry in Spain. It would not be long before Scipio himself encountered Masinissa on the battlefield. 

What to See Here?

The Campus Martius, or “Field of Mars,” the vast floodplain between the Capitoline Hill, the Tiber, and the slopes of the Quirinal and Pincian hills, was originally private land, owned by Rome’s last kings, the Tarquins. After the Tarquins’ expulsion and the founding of the Roman Republic, it passed into public ownership. The Campus Martius was not the only name for the plain. Other, earlier names included the Ager Tarax or Campus Tiberinus, since it lay near the River Tiber. But its name linked with the god of war stuck. It was here, outside the sacred city limit, pomerium, that Rome’s soldiers would gather for military and athletic exercises, since Rome’s armies had to disband before entering the city, at least until the days of Sulla.

From the second century, the Roman State took control and built temples, baths, porticoes, and even permanent performance areas. They employed Greek artists to adorn their buildings, and transformed Rome into the Hellenistic capital it resembles today. It was under Augustus and his lieutenant Marcus Agrippa, that the Campus Martius became truly monumentalised. Having rescued the Republic from civil war, Augustus built his altar of peace, the Ara Pacis, on the plain. Another of his buildings, the Solarium, quite literally overshadowed it. The gnomon of the structure pointed to the center of Augustus’s altar every year on his birthday.

Building on the Campus Martius continued from the Augustan Age. One of its most prolific patrons was Hadrian. He improved many of its monuments, including the Pantheon, Basilica of Neptune, and Baths of Agrippa. His own temple was also erected there—the Hadrianum—after his death in 138 AD. Further development pushed the field itself further north. With continuous inhabitation from antiquity throughout the Middle Ages and to the present, this area became smaller.

Current Sights

Now, with the actual architecture on the Campus Martius, there’s no modern sense of standing on an ancient plain. On street level, the Campus Martius is home to some of the ancient city’s biggest names. It includes the ancient temples of the Largo Argentina’s Area Sacra, those to Juturna and Lares Penetarii in particular. It’s also the home of the Pantheon, the Mausoleum of Augustus and—though it’s been moved—the Ara Pacis. Below the medieval / modern street level lie some of the ancient city’s lost giants. The Stadium of Domitian lies beneath Piazza Navona, the Theatre of Pompey beneath Piazza di Grotta Pinta, and the Odeon of Domitian beneath Palazzo Massimo.

What makes the Campus Martius rather unique in Rome that it has been inhabited constantly since antiquity. During the Renaissance, it was regarded as the centro storico (or the historical centre) of Rome. The Augustan Aqua Virgo aquaduct which ran through it supplied water to the medieval and early modern neighbourhood. Its constant urban settlement means that it has largely retained its ancient plan to the present.

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Sources: Livy, History of Rome; Appian, The Spanish Wars; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Joannes Zonaras, The History of Zonaras.

Header Photo: Battle of Hannibal and Scipio (Alexander’s victory over Poros) by Ignaz Elhafenis licensed under  CC0

War Breaks Out

Masinissa’s father, King Gala of the Massylii, maintained close relations with Carthage. In fact, Masinissa grew up in the capital city itself. As a result, he was very familiar with the culture, and even engaged to a woman of Carthage. Sophonista was the daughter of Hasdrubal, the highest ranking general in Carthage. The fact that he betrothed his daughter to a foreign Numidian speaks highly of Masinissa’s character, intelligence, and abilities. Unsurprisingly, King Gala allied himself once again with Carthage for the 2^nd Punic War. King Syphax of the Masaesyli began leading raids against Carthage and the Massylii. The Roman generals leading the Republic’s forces in Spain, brothers named Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, heard of this, and subsequently offered an alliance to Syphax, which he readily accepted. 

When Carthage urged Gala to move against Syphax, young Masinissa was eager to obey. Only seventeen years old, he convinced his father to send the army and begged to take command. The two armies clashed in a great battle. Livy says that 30,000 men died. Masinissa won, and drove Syphax and his forces back to Mauretania. However, while he was there, Syphax managed to gather a large number of local tribes to his side. He prepared to cross with his massive army into Spain, but Masinissa followed swiftly. He continued the war against Syphax alone, with no help from Carthage, stopping Syphax’s plans to enter Spain. 

The Battle of Castulo

When Hasdrubal returned to Spain to fight the Scipio brothers, he asked Masinissa to join him. The young prince came at the head of 3000 Numidian cavalry. The state of affairs looked dire for Rome. Hannibal pressed his attack on Italy, and Rome had no more men to send to Spain. The Scipio brothers employed 20,000 Iberian mercenaries to boost their forces. Unfortunately, the generals of Carthage convinced many of them to desert the Romans and join their armies. Nevertheless, Publius Scipio marched out to meet two of the Carthaginian generals. On the way, he found himself under constant harassment from the dangerous Numidians. Unrivaled in speed, agility, and maneuvers, they cut off stragglers and foragers, and even attacked the camp outposts. At night, they would rush the stockade of the camp itself. They kept the Romans in a state of continual fear and anxiety, and prevented them from resupplying. 

Feeling the pressure, Publius Scipio sought out a battle where he would usually have remained cautious. He led a quick march to attack the Iberian allies of the Carthaginians near the city of Castulo. The Romans were winning easily until Masinissa, having guessed Scipio’s plan, reappeared in the middle of the battle. The Numidians rushed both flanks of the Romans, and soon after the Carthaginian forces arrived. Though Scipio fought fiercely in the heart of the battle, an enemy spear struck him in the side. He fell dead from his horse, and the Romans fled, utterly dispirited by the loss of their general. 

Victory in Spain

Soon after, the victorious forces moved against Gnaeus Scipio. Upon seeing their approach, Gnaeus feared already that his brother had fallen. He and his men retreated under the cover of night, heading for Ebro. The next morning, realizing what had happened, the Carthaginians sent Masinissa and his cavalry in pursuit. The nimble horsemen quickly caught the Romans, and attacked their rear lines. Forced to turn constantly to defend themselves, the Romans’ march was dangerously slowed. Eventually the attacks became too fierce. Gnaeus circled his men on a small rise to form a more organized defense.  Soon after, as Gnaeus had feared, the remaining Carthaginians arrived. Using the packs and saddles of their horses, the Romans built a makeshift rampart.  It proved tougher to breach than expected, and for a time, the Roman soldiers held off the attack.

Eventually, however, the Carthaginian forces managed to cut through the packs in several places. “The camp was rushed on all sides and captured; the little band of defenders were slaughtered by the masses of the enemy, helpless in the hands of their victors.” The news of the brothers’ deaths devastated Rome, and the Senate searched frantically for a new commander. Meanwhile, in Spain, Masinissa celebrated the victory over the Scipio brothers with his Carthaginian allies. He was unaware that his life was destined to be entwined with yet another Scipio, Publius Cornelius Scipio, the son and nephew of the dead commanders, and one of the greatest generals in the history of Rome. 

What to See Here? 

The ruins of ancient Castulo lie just south of modern Linares and have recently been organized as a formal archaeological attraction. Structures that can be distinguished by the remains of their foundations include baths and an aqueduct as well as a possible temple. A perfectly preserved and spectacular mosaic, known as ‘The Mosaic of Loves,’ was discovered here in 2012. The mosaic depicts two main scenes: the Judgment of Paris and Selene and Endymion loves. The mosaic is unique for its compositional scheme and myths represented.

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Sources: Appian, The Punic Wars; Livy, History of Rome; Cassius Dio, Roman History

Header Photo: Zona de las termas en Cástulo by Kordas is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0