– Cassius Dio

Christened Publius Helvius Pertinax, the future emperor enjoyed a humble and practical beginning, which informed his decisions throughout his life. He even maintained his business enterprises in Vada Sabatia, just south of Savo, after being named emperor. Though a favorite of the people and the Senate due to his unassuming respect of the Senators and his careful administration of the empire, he tried to make improvements too suddenly and incurred the wrath of the Roman Praetorians, to his demise.

Childhood and Army Life

Pertinax’s father was no noble, rather he was a freedman named Helvius Successus. The cognomen Pertinax is similar to “persistence,” something the Historia Augusta claims was given to the young boy by his father in honor of his own diligence in timber trade. There is some discrepancy between the sources as to Pertinax’s hometown, but Cassius Dio’s claim that he was born in Alba Pompeia, a city in Luguria just barely to the south of Savo, modern day Savona, is generally accepted. He is frequently mentioned as “going home” to his father’s workshop in a nearby town, and Cassius Dio served in the Senate at the same time as Pertinax, even attending his funeral eulogy. There is little reason to doubt his information.

Pertinax’s father wished for his son to receive some education, and so he sent him to learn literature and arithmetic. He particularly excelled in grammar under the tutelage of Sulpicius Apollinaris, and pursued a career as a grammar instructor himself. Quickly realizing that there was little money to be made as a grammar tutor, he instead joined the Roman Army, and quickly earned recognition and promotions for his actions in the Parthian War. He served in many different regions of the Empire, as a soldier in Britain, squadron commander in Moesia, supply officer in northern Italy, and commander of the German naval fleet, finally ending up in Dacia.  

Earning Imperial Attention

Pertinax lost the Dacia command due to the schemes of some rivals, who convinced the emperor, Marcus Aurelius, that Pertinax was not to be trusted. However, Pertinax had developed a relationship with Claudius Pompeianus, the emperor’s son-in-law, and the latter took him as his aid in order to begin rebuilding his reputation, and then later pushed through Pertinax’s enrollment in the Senate. Eventually, the plot against him was discovered. To make it right, Marcus Aurelius gave him the rank of praetor and the command of the First Legion. After distinguishing himself once again, Marcus recommended him for a consulship, and praised his skill and quality of character frequently. Over the following years, Pertinax continued to serve loyally throughout the empire as governor of first Moesia, then Dacia, and later Syria.

It was about this time, shortly after the death of Marcus Aurelius that the Historia Augusta claims Pertinax began to grow ambitious and money hungry. His ambitions were halted, however, when Commodus’s Prefect of the Praetorians, Tigidius Perennis, ordered him to leave Rome, essentially softly exiling him to the country. Pertinax when home to Liguria and took charge of his father’s old ’loth-making shop, as well as buying up and managing numerous local farms and business to add to his holdings. After Perennis became embroiled in a plot to overthrow Commodus, the emperor ordered his execution and invited Pertinax back into favor, asking him to take over command of Britain. Upon returning from this post, Commodus appointed him consul for the second time.

Acclaimed Emperor

Pertinax was still serving as consul when Commodus’s mistress, chamberlain, and prefect of his bodyguard conspired to assassinate their emperor. Pertinax was apparently unaware of the plot, but the three came to him after Commodus was dead and asked him to succeed as emperor. Upon winning the support of the army, though begrudgingly, Pertinax went before the Senate, told them the army had acclaimed him Emperor, but insisted that he did not want the office and would immediately resign it. However, the Senate quickly begged him to take the office, and affirmed him as emperor while declaring Commodus a public enemy.

Pertinax received a warm welcome, for Commodus had been universally hated, particularly by the Senators who feared his violent, changing moods and frequent executions. Furthermore, Pertinax was deeply enamored of traditional Rome, and respectful of the Senate. Dio Cassius, a contemporary Senator, praised him highly in his history, saying that “he showed not only humaneness and integrity in the imperial administrations, but also the most economical management and the most careful consideration for the public welfare.” He also pardoned many of those whom Commodus had killed unjustly and saw to their exhumations and proper burials. Many Romans immediately burst into tears for their family and friends, having been too frightened of Commodus even to mourn.

The Modest Princeps

Despite his newly found power, Pertinax remained circumspect and humble. He would not accept the title of Augusta for his wife or Caesar for his son. In fact, he refused to allow them to be raised in the palace. On his first day as emperor he divided all the wealth he had between the two of them and sent them to live with their grandfather in the country. He visited them there as often as he could, “but rather as their father than as emperor” (Cassius Dio, 8).

He was a somewhat portly older man with a long beard, though he maintained a regal bearing. Although he was not an immensely intelligent emperor, he enjoyed having literary discussions with his wife and a former teaching friend over dinner, and possessed enough skill in speaking to be described as suave. Though generally a kind and friendly emperor, Pertinax maintained a stingy nature, never throwing extravagant parties, serving less than luxurious fare in half portions, and having none of the over-generous qualities of some of his predecessors.

A Reign Cut Short

It was this quality that eventually caused Pertinax’s downfall, for the Praetorians began to feel that he had not given them their due, and he also forbade them from looting and despoiling defeated enemies. He made enemies within the palace as well with the freedmen and courtiers who had enjoyed lavish lifestyles under Commodus that Pertinax would not permit. Though the palace members had no means to stage an uprising, the Praetorians began to plot against him, headed by Laetus, the old prefect of the imperial guards who had first placed Pertinax on the throne.

They attempted a coup with the current consul, Falco, as the intended successor, but Pertinax discovered the plot. Even so, he would not allow the Senate to sentence Falco to death, but instead exiled him to the country. Laetus, however, took the failed rebellion as an opportunity. Executing many Praetorian soldiers who had been involved, he insisted that it was on the emperor’s orders, and thus worked them into a fury. A large group marched on the palace, and the disgruntled courtiers opened the gates and doors for them.

Rather than concealing himself or sending his personal guard to overwhelm them, Pertinax thought he could talk them down and went out to meet them. He was almost correct. Upon seeing him they were ashamed, lowering their eyes and sheathing their weapons. All except one soldier, who “leaped forward exclaiming, “The soldiers have sent you this sword,” and forthwith fell upon him and wounded him.” The other soldiers recovered their resolve and joined in, killing Pertinax and Eclectus, the chamberlain who had initially conspired against Commodus and now remained steadfastly loyal. He died attempting to defend his emperor.

Aftermath

Pertinax had reigned for only eighty-seven days. The soldiers, caught up in the excitement of their rebellious murder, mounted his head on a spike and carried it through the streets. However, Pertinax’s successor, Didius Julianus, did recover the body and give the former emperor a proper burial, and after the death of Julianus, the Senate declared Pertinax a god. Pertinax’s rule was an interestingly divided one. As much as the soldiers and his palace staff grew to hate him, the Senate and the people adored him, and were infuriated by his death.

His historical legacy remains a largely positive one, influenced by the eyewitness account of Cassius Dio who obviously held him in high regard. According to Cassius, Pertinax’s only true failing was his attempt to fix the problems of the empire too quickly. “He failed to comprehend, though a man of wide practical experience, that one cannot with safety reform everything at once, and that the restoration of a state, in particular, requires both time and wisdom.”

What to See in Savona now ?

While nothing remains of Roman Savo itself, a Roman villa can be found northeast of modern Savona in its own archeological park. The site is mainly limited to wall foundations, but it gives an idea of how large these farming hubs could be (The park now appears to be permanently closed to visitors. However, the villa walls and foundations can still be seen from outside the site). In Savona’s historical center, the local archeological museum in the medieval castle contains a good collection of pottery and tools used by the Celts who inhabited the area.

Savo on Timetravelrome App:

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Sources: Historia Augusta, Pertinax; Cassius Dio, Roman History

Header image: Pertinax Aureus minted btw 1st January – 28th March 193. Obverse: Laureate head of Pertinax right. Reverse: Aequitas standing l., holding scales and cornucopiae. Source: Numismatica Ars Classica NAC AG Auction 117 Lot 313. Picture is used by permission of NAC.

– Cassius Dio

Successful Career

As the son of a prominent noble family, Didius Julianus enjoyed opportunities that his predecessor, Pertinax, was forced to earn. He was raised in the home of Marcus Aurelius’s mother, Domitia Lucilla, and so received the support both of Domitia and of Marcus himself. He was made quaestor a year before the official legal age, and then later appointed aedile and then praetor. After commanding the Legio XXII Primigenia in Germania, he was given governorship of Gallia Belgica, which he administered well, including holding out against an attack by the Chauci tribe of Germania. He also served several other offices under Marcus Aurelius, and attained the position of consul.

Didius almost lost his life after Commodus succeeded his father as emperor. For while he was serving as superintendent of money grants to the poor of Italy, a soldier named Severus Clarissimus accused him of being in league with Salvius in his plot to kill the emperor. Commodus treated most perceived threats to his reign with brutality, but in this case he had already killed so many prominent noblemen that he feared he would soon cross the line and earn the opposition of the people, so he instead pardoned Didius, executed Severus Clarissimus, and gave Didius governorship of Bithynia. He became consul for the second time, and served it with Pertinax.

An Empire is Auctioned

At the time of Pertinax’s murder, Titus Flavius Claudius Sulpicianus, the father-in-law of Pertinax who was serving as consul, was in the Praetorian camp attempting to keep order. Some Praetorians began to suggest that Sulpicianus be named emperor, but Didius Julianus, hearing of the death of Pertinax, was eager to make his own attempt for the throne. Standing outside the gates of the camp, he started offering the soldiers sums of money if they would make him emperor. As a result, a fierce bidding war began between Sulpicianus and Julianus, as the Praetorians essentially sold Rome to the highest offer.

In the end, it was Didius Julianus who made the winning proposal, raising his bid by 5000 sesterces per soldier all at once, shocking the Praetorians and at the same time insinuating that Sulpicianus would seek to avenge the death of Pertinax. They threw their support behind Julianus at a price of 25,000 sesterces each. Escorted by the Praetorians, Julianus made his way to the Senate house to demand that they appoint him emperor. He gave an excellent speech in his own defense, but his claims of coming humbly before them alone to plead his case were undermined by his escort of Praetorians, who surrounded the Senate chambers and many had even joined him inside. Although the Senators feared and hated him, they were cowed into agreement, and made Julianus emperor.

Uneasy Ascension

Upon receiving imperial power from the Senate, Julianus went up to the palace. Pertinax’s dinner was still on the table. Julianus mocked the simple meal, and then sent out for expensive food for himself and his supporters. With Pertinax’s decapitated body still lying unattended in the building, they feasted and played dice late into the night. The Historia Augusta says that after this incident, Julianus did at least see to a proper burial for Pertinax, but he never spoke of him again and the Senators were too frightened to mention his name.

The people of Rome, however, were not nearly so cautious. They “went about openly with sullen looks, spoke their mind as much as they pleased, and were getting ready to do anything they could.” It all came to a head when Julianus prepared to make a sacrifice to Janus in the forum. The people began to shout at him, accusing him of parricide and stealing the empire. In an attempt to silence them, Julianus offered them money. Rather than calming the crowd, it only enflamed them more that he believed they could be bought, and they cried “We don’t want it! We won’t take it!” 

Julianus finally lost his temper and ordered the Praetorians to kill those standing closest to him. Even this did not silence the angry populace, “and it did not cease expressing its regret for Pertinax and abusing Julianus, invoking the gods and cursing the soldiers; but though many were wounded and killed in many parts of the city, they continued to resist.”

Pretense and Preparations

Having taken power through bribery, intimidation, and violence, Julianus now attempted to change his tune. He paid respects to the Senate, gave favors and banquets, and tried to court their support. He even tried to appear humble before them, for when the Senators voted to make a gold statue of him, he refused it, saying “Give me a bronze one, so that it may last; for I observe that the gold and silver statues of the emperors that ruled before me have been destroyed, whereas the bronze ones remain.” Cassius Dio noted that “he was mistaken, for it is virtue that preserves the memory of rulers; and in fact the bronze statue that was granted him was destroyed after his own overthrow.” Yet despite Julianus’s best efforts, the Senate remained sullen and suspicious, considering his actions to be ingenuous flattery.

In the meantime, rebellious elements were stirring in the Legions posted around the Empire. The most competent was Septimius Severus, governor of Pannonia. His soldiers declared him emperor, and he began to plan a march on Rome. Julianus compelled the Senate to name Severus as an enemy of the state, and attempted to send assassins to get rid of his rival, but they were unsuccessful. Concerned over the incoming enemy, Julianus made efforts to prepare a defense, much to the amusement of the still disgruntled Senate and people, for the Praetorians and local navy were soft from lack of action, and even the elephants threw their riders.

The end of Julianus

When Severus had reached Italy, and taken Ravenna without a fight, the Praetorians themselves grew frightened of the war hardened veterans marching their way. The men that Julianus sent to disrupt the ranks or murder Severus kept deserting and joining his soldiers, and they were exhausted from drilling and preparation, all of which seemed fruitless. Into this atmosphere, Severus sent a letter promising the Praetorians that if they surrendered the murderers of Pertinax, no further action would be taken against them. The Praetorians resolved to support Severus, and when the Senate learned of their decision, they sentenced Julianus to death as an enemy of Rome and voted to appoint Severus as emperor.

The Praetorians came upon him while he was reclining at the palace and killed him just as they had Pertinax – he had ruled for only two months and five days. His body was delivered to his wife and daughter and laid to rest in the family tomb on the Labican Way, and Septimius Severus became the next emperor of Rome, establishing the Severan Dynasty which ruled for the following four decades.

What to See in Roman Milan now ?

Fans of the ancient Roman world will delight in the numerous remnants that still survive in modern day Milan. Near the central Church of San Lorenzo, for example, stands a row of 16 ancient Corinthian columns. Most likely once part of one of the elaborate thermae of the vibrant ancient city, this colonnade extends to meet the medieval wall of the town that is still dotted with ancient Roman spolia. To the north, at the twelfth-century Port Nuova, one can also spy some ancient Roman fragmentary stele sculpture. Small portions of the Mediolanum’s amphitheater and imperial palace are visible within the Milanese landscape, with additional artistic examples and objects housed in the Civic Archaeological Museum.

It is possible for visitors to view the foundations of several small buildings from the civilian settlement, probably the residences of soldier’s families. These were discovered whilst excavating in the Michaelerplatz and have been left on permanent display. Although it is not possible to view much of Vienna’s Roman archaeology in situ, there are several museums with excellent Roman collections. These include the Wien Museum and the Romermuseum, which includes the remnants of two tribunes’s houses amongst its collection.

Milan on Timetravelrome App:

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Sources: Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus; Cassius Dio, Roman History

Header image: Bust of Didius Julianus in the Antiquarium (Münchner Residenz), photo by Sailko, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.

By all accounts, Marcus Aurelius truly embodied the principles he embraced, and he proved his faithful devotion to virtue throughout his rule by his actions. The Historia Augusta described him as “devoted to philosophy as long as he lived and pre-eminent among emperors in purity of life.” Cassius Dio stated that Marcus Aurelius “refrained from all offences and did nothing amiss whether voluntarily or involuntarily,” and the historian Herodian wrote that “Alone of the emperors, he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life.” Even the Christian author Melito called him “the philosopher,” and described him as more philanthropic and philosophic than both Antoninus and Hadrian. His only real failure was that he produced a son, thereby ending the line of emperors adopted for suitability rather than family name.

Love of Learning

Marcus dedicated himself to intellectual pursuits quite early in his life, and he maintained a deep affection for his teachers even as he rose to the heights of power. In fact, he used his powers as emperor to confer many honors upon his tutors, particularly one Marcus Cornelius Fronto, who remained a close friend and correspondent.

A collection of letters between Marcus Aurelius and Cornelius Fronto have been found and published. Soon after Marcus rose to power, Fronto wrote to express his pride in his pupil, telling him “There was then an outstanding natural ability in you, there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn, there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality.”

Even as the emperor of Rome, Marcus continued to receive instruction in Stoic philosophy at the home of Apollonius. Furthermore, Marcus commissioned statues of all of his most influential teachers, which he kept in his bedroom. When one of them died, he would make frequent visits to the tomb to personally bring flowers and perform sacrifices.

The Syrian Revolt

Following the death of Lucius, Marcus received an opportunity to also demonstrate his leniency when Roman general Avidius Cassius unexpectedly became the leader of a rebellion in the province of Syria. Cassius Dio asserts that the rebellion was actually a mistake instigated by Marcus’s wife, Faustina the Younger. Marcus had long been in poor health, and Faustina apparently feared that he would die before their son Commodus was old enough to take the throne. She subsequently reached out to Cassius, offering him regency over the empire until Commodus came of age and her own hand in marriage should Marcus Aurelius pass unexpectedly.

It was reasonable enough to plan for such an eventuality, but unfortunately, sometime after the plan was in place, a false rumor circulated claiming that Marcus was dead. Not waiting for confirmation, Cassius declared that his soldiers had proclaimed him emperor, and prepared to fight for the throne. When he learned that Marcus was still very much alive, he ultimately decided to proceed with his bid for power, even though Marcus pleaded with him to agree to peace terms, lamenting the fact that he was to be forced into war with someone he still considered to be a dear friend. He even asserted that he would hand over the empire to Cassius if the general would just agree to a diplomatic end to the violence, but he knew, correctly as it would turn out, that Cassius would never trust that assurance enough to come to Rome. Though many foreign soldiers offered their assistance to Marcus in the campaign, he refused them all, insisting that Roman matters should remain between Romans.

A Merciful Ruler

In an address to his soldiers, Marcus told them that he feared only one thing, “that either [Cassius] will kill himself…or that someone else will do so upon learning that I am to come. For then I should be deprived of a great prize both of war and of victory, a prize such as no human being has ever yet obtained: To forgive a man who has wronged one, to remain a friend to one who has transgressed friendship, to continue faithful to one who has broken faith… that would be the one profit I could derive from our present ills, if I could settle this affair well and show to all mankind that there is a right way to deal even with civil wars.”

Marcus’s fears proved true, for upon learning that Marcus was not dead; Cassius’s own soldiers turned on him and killed him. They triumphantly brought the head to Marcus, but he refused to even look at it, instead mourning the loss and ordering the head to be buried with all honors and respect. He would not punish the province, or even any of the Senators that had declared for Cassius. He burned all papers that might implicate them and resolved to leave the trials entirely in the hands of the Senate.

Yet even if he was not directly responsible, he abhorred the thought of more death, and instead wrote to the Senate and begged them, as a personal favor, not to execute any of the Senators convicted as traitors. “May it never happen,” he continued, “that any one of you should be slain during my reign either by my vote or by yours.”

Death at Vindobona

About this same time, Faustina the Younger died, though historians debate whether it was due to natural illness or whether she committed suicide rather than be implicated in the plot against her husband. If the latter, it was almost certainly not known by her contemporaries, for the Senate decreed that silver images of Marcus and Faustina be placed in the temple of Venus and Rome, and that a golden statue be made of Faustina to sit beside Marcus any time he attended the theatre. This statue became the gathering place of all the most influential women in Rome.

Marcus was devastated by his wife’s death, but he had little time to mourn. The Germanic tribes to the north began another rebellion. Without Lucius, Marcus went himself to oversee the campaign. Though the army was largely successful, Marcus’s health was failing rapidly. On March 17^th of 180 A.D., in the military camp at Vindobona, Marcus commended the care of his son Commodus to his soldiers and assigned the watchword for the day: “Go to the rising sun; I am already setting,” before closing his eyes for the last time.

Though suspicion of conspiracy and murder later arose, rumors that formed the plot of the movie Gladiator, there is little evidence to support these. Commodus had been named Caesar and the presumptive heir to Marcus as far back as 166 A.D., and had been serving for years in the capacity of Marcus’s subordinate co-emperor, as Marcus had with Antoninus Pius.

A Venerable Legacy

Generous, lenient, merciful, gentle, frugal, intelligent, and a skilled administrator, all ancient historians remember Marcus as an excellent ruler of Rome. Cassius Dio named him the greatest emperor in Roman history. “Such love for him was manifested on the day of the imperial funeral that none thought that men should lament him, since all were sure that he had been lent by the gods and had now returned to them. Finally, before his funeral was held, so many say, the senate and people, not in separate places but sitting together, as was never done before or after, hailed him as a gracious god.” The Senate commissioned a golden statue of Marcus that they erected in their meeting hall.

Unfortunately, Marcus’s son Commodus proved an erratic and irresponsible emperor, to the point that he was assassinated in a conspiracy by his own Praetorian Guard after only twelve years of rule, and Rome descended “from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust.”

What to See in Vindobona now ?

Unfortunately not much of Vindobona is extant above the surface. Its location under Vienna has made much of the site completely inaccessible to archaeologists and extensive excavations impossible to conduct. As mentioned previously, the best evidence for the original outline, is to be found in the modern street layout which follows what would have been the camp’s exterior walls. Whilst it is impossible to gain a complete understanding of the interior of Vindobona, Roman military camps usually followed a uniform pattern, allowing Archaeologists to compare data from other similar sites and work out the probable location of several buildings.

It is possible for visitors to view the foundations of several small buildings from the civilian settlement, probably the residences of soldier’s families. These were discovered whilst excavating in the Michaelerplatz and have been left on permanent display. Although it is not possible to view much of Vienna’s Roman archaeology in situ, there are several museums with excellent Roman collections. These include the Wien Museum and the Romermuseum, which includes the remnants of two tribunes’s houses amongst its collection.

Vindobona on Timetravelrome App:

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Header image: Marcus Aurelius Statue. Picture by Erik Drost, licensed under CC BY 2.0.

– Marcus Aurelius

Article written by Marian Vermeulen

Father and Son

With a shared love of philosophy, intellect, virtue, and kindness, Marcus Aurelius and Antoninus Pius were an excellent match as father and son and as emperor and heir. Marcus married Antoninus’s daughter, Faustina the Younger, and further tightened their familial ties. The new emperor also made Marcus his consular partner on a number of occasions, granted him the title of Caesar, made him one of six commanders of the equestrian order, and gave him a high position in the priesthood.

Marcus genuinely adored his adopted father, and praises him at great length in his Meditations, enumerating countless virtuous qualities. Marcus gave Antoninus his unswerving loyalty, and over the next twenty-three years, “he conducted himself in his father’s home in such a manner that [Antoninus] Pius felt more affection for him day by day, and never in all these years, save for two nights on different occasions, remained away from him.”

As the years passed and Antoninus began to slow down, Marcus took on even greater responsibility and served ostensibly as Antoninus’s co-emperor, though not named as such. Marcus was already nominally in charge of the government by March of 161 A.D. when Antoninus contracted a fever at his favorite family estate in Lorium. Marcus rushed to be at his side. He charged Marcus with the care of both his daughter Faustina and of Rome, asked his attendants to move his golden statue of Fortune from his bedside to Marcus’s, and then rolled over as if to sleep and quietly died, ending a reign of unprecedented peace in the Roman Empire.

Co-Emperors

The Senate quickly hailed Marcus as imperator, Augustus, and Pontifex Maximus, but Marcus laid out a single, imperative condition to his taking the position: his adopted brother Lucius Verus, now also betrothed to his daughter Lucilla and his future son-in-law, must be named co-emperor. It was a first for imperial Rome, but the Senate eventually agreed. It was a wise and practical decision. The Empire had grown to be a huge responsibility for a single man to manage. Additionally, Marcus had long been less active and prone to illness, and rarely traveled outside of Rome.

Yet his intelligence and character, combined with years of experience and a deep understanding of Roman politics, made him an ideal administrative and political leader. His brother was the opposite, younger, stronger, and preferring action to thought. Though he still deferred to Marcus as the senior ruler, he was perfectly suited to be the supreme commander of the Roman legions, and to coordinate Roman military endeavors far afield. Their joint rule allowed them to succeed in all arenas, and to maintain a constant imperial presence both at home and in conflicted provinces.

One Glorious Year

Having ruled alongside Antoninus for so many years, Marcus took imperial rule with experience and knowledge of his duties and of Rome that many previous emperors did not enjoy. Therefore, while Lucius energetically organized the military, Marcus earned great goodwill for his early reforms politically. He added court days to the calendar, overseeing many of the cases personally, and showing a particular interest in laws managing the protection of orphans and children, the manumission of slaves, and the choosing of city officials. He showed immense respect for the Senate, asking their opinion in may matters, coming to them personally if he wished to make a proposal, and attending every meeting if he was in Rome, even staying late into the night when elections ran long.  

He was frugal with imperial funds, heavily reducing games and revising taxes, but investing instead in welfare programs to support the poor. He also required wealthy officials to invest some of their fortune back into the Roman Empire, shamed informers, and ignored attempts at bribery. He was equally temperate in his personal relationships, “at all times exceedingly reasonable both in restraining men from evil and in urging them to good, generous in rewarding and quick to forgive, thus making bad men good, and good men very good, and he even bore with unruffled temper the insolence of not a few.” Marcus and Lucius’s first year of rule was one of peace and prosperity, but misfortune waited around the corner.

Multitude of Disasters

In 162 A.D., heavy rains pushed the Tiber over its banks and flooded much of the city of Rome, causing immense damage to homes and property. The loss did not end there, however, for the flooding continued into the surrounding countryside, destroying agricultural estates, drowning numerous livestock, and plunging the city into famine. Though legislative details have not survived describing Marcus and Lucius’s actions, they are both highly praised in ancient sources for their personal investment in resolving the crisis, both in terms of their time and efforts, and large amounts of their own personal fortunes spent in mitigating the disaster.

At about the same time, the situation with the Parthians in Syria was becoming unmanageable, and Marcus sent Lucius to lead the campaign personally. It was exactly the reason for insisting on the co-emperorship in the first place, but Marcus may have had another reason. The Historia Augusta suggests that Lucius was becoming rather wild at home, and Marcus sent him to get him out of the public eye and in the hopes that he might learn some responsibility.

The Historia Augusta is prone to dramatics and this might be discounted as an embellishment except that other sources corroborate that Lucius’s behavior on route to Syria was disgraceful. He moved slowly through the provinces, enjoying their particular delights, all “while a legate was being slain, while legions were being slaughtered, while Syria meditated revolt, and the East was being devastated.” Despite his dalliances, and with the help of two excellent generals, the Parthians were defeated. The Senate granted both men high honors, and voted Lucius a triumph, which he insisted that Marcus share, the first ever triumph to honor two emperors together. 

A Grievous Loss

Yet the triumph was bittersweet, for the Roman soldiers returning to Rome brought with them a plague, probably either measles or smallpox, which killed around five million people. On top of this, Germanic incursions in the north required military intervention. Whether it seemed like an incident that required two commanders or whether Lucius’s behavior had caused Marcus to lose faith that he could trust his brother alone, this time, Marcus and Lucius set out together to command the legions. However, the matter was quickly resolved for the tribes sued for peace and the brothers accepted and turned for home.

While travelling through Pannonia, Lucius became ill and eventually died in the carriage with Marcus at his side. Though Cassius Dio hinted that there was suspicion that Lucius was killed for plotting against Marcus, the claim is unsupported and largely disbelieved. Marcus mourned Lucius deeply, despite all of their differences, the brothers seemed to still hold genuine affection for one another, and nothing indicates that Lucius would have sought to assassinate his brother, or that Marcus would have reacted by having him killed. In fact, Marcus was merciful on many occasions. Even the Historia Augusta labeled the death accidental. Many modern historians believe that Lucius likely fell victim to the Antonine Plague, which was still very active at the time.

After the devastating task of burying his brother, Marcus was soon called back to Germany to deal with the dangerous Macromanni Tribe. Wars with various Germanic tribes would continue through the remainder of Marcus’s reign, many of them depicted in the exquisite triumphal column of Marcus Aurelius which survives in Rome to this day. 

What to See Here now?

Towering above what at the time was the recently developed area of the Campus Martius that ran parallel to the Via Flaminia, the Column of Marcus Aurelius was erected sometime between the emperor’s death in 180 AD and the year 193 AD. The latter date provides a terminus ante quem because of an inscription found onsite which authorises the procurator responsible for the column’s construction to put the monument’s wooden scaffolding towards building his house.

In total, the monument stands at a height of just under 42 metres. The Doric column’s decorative relief programme is much simpler (and therefore much more legible) than Trajan’s. It begins with the Roman army’s crossing of the Danube before breaking off individual episodes of campaigns against the Germans. As is the case on Trajan’s Column, Victory appears halfway through—and halfway up—to divide the narrative between the earlier campaign (172 – 173) and the later campaign (174 -175). 

The column originally belied the modern street level by some three metres; its base decorated on three sides with festooned depictions of Victory. In all likelihood, it stood in the foreground of the Temple of the Divine Marcus Aurelius, erected by his son Commodus. Only traces of this presumably demolished temple survive. As with the case of Trajan’s Column, a spiral staircase was built into the shaft of the column, leading from the base right up to the top level.

Column of Marcus Aurelius on Timetravelrome App:

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Cassius Dio, Roman History; Marcus Aurelius, Meditations; Sextus Aurelius Victor, Epitome De Caesaribus; Historia Augusta, The Life of Antoninus Pius.

Header image: Detail from the Column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. Photo by Barosaurus Lentus, licensed under CC BY 3.0.

– Plato, Republic

A note from Marian Vermeulen (author):

I am a longtime lover of Marcus Aurelius. His picture is on the wall next to my desk with several of my favorite individuals from history and a copy of his Meditations lives in my bedside table. Having majored in history and philosophy in university, I have done several research projects focused on him and I am fascinated by his attempt to embody the concept of the ideal philosopher king, as well as finding that his personal stoic philosophy resonates deeply with my desires for my own life.

I’ve noticed in circles of Roman history lovers that there is a trend for folks to be dismissive of the idea of discussing Marcus Aurelius. The argument often hinges on the fact that people only like him because of seeing the movie Gladiator. I can understand why they might be frustrated with that kind of superficial excitement and interest, but I would argue that it makes it even more imperative to dive into the actual history. If all people know is a clip from a movie, or a brief overview done over and over again on a popular topic, how much more important is it to actually investigate? I hope, therefore, that you will join me in a short series that will dig into the details of the life of one of Rome’s great emperors.

Childhood on the Caelian

Marcus Aurelius was born Marcus Annius Verus on April 26^th, 121 A.D. into a family of considerable status. His father was a high ranking Senator and his mother the heiress of a profitable brick factory. The family lived on the Caelian Hill of Rome, which housed many wealthy and elite Romans. Yet in 124 A.D., Marcus’s father died unexpectedly, leaving his widow with a three year old son and infant daughter, Marcus’s sister Annia Cornificia Faustina.

Luckily they had a loving family, and were taken in by Marcus’s paternal grandfather, whom Marcus later praised for his “courtesy and serenity of temper.” His maternal great-grandfather, Lucius Catilius Severus, also took a keen interest in the boy’s education and upbringing, to the extent that Marcus later added “Catilius Severus” to his name. Both of these prominent men were regulars in the imperial inner circle, Lucius in particular was a close friend of Emperor Hadrian. When Hadrian returned from one of his many tours of the empire, Lucius came to call, bringing with him his now four year old great-grandson.

Hadrian quickly developed a fondness for the “solemn child,” and spent many hours with him, often literally in his lap. His nickname for the boy was Verissimus, or “most truthful.” It was derived from Marcus’s cognomen, Verus, and also referenced the boy’s serious devotion to honesty, even as a toddler. Eager to help his new protégé, Hadrian enrolled Marcus in the equestrian order when the boy was only six, and at seven he named him to the priestly college of the Salii. As the group usually chose its own members, an imperial appointment was a mark of high favor. 

A Philosophical Youth

Hadrian soon left on another tour, this time to Africa, but Marcus was already set on a path to success. He began his studies and quite enjoyed them, learning oration, literature, drama, music, geometry, grammar, and more. His favorite topic, however, was philosophy. He was instructed by a renowned stoic, Apollonius, who he described as “living proof that the fieriest energy is not incompatible with the ability to relax.” As early as age twelve, Marcus had committed himself to pursuit of stoicism. He began to dress in the simple style of Greek philosophers, and insisted that he should sleep on the floor as they did. His mother absolutely refused. Eventually they settled on a compromise, and Marcus exchanged his bed for a simple pallet covered with animal skins.

Hadrian returned when his Verissimus was thirteen years old. He was a kind, pleasant boy, though also very serious and focused, and Hadrian was just as pleased with him as before. When Marcus turned fifteen and received the toga virilis, marking him an adult, Hadrian appointed him prefect of the city during the Latin Festival, an ancient ceremony where the elder of the city processed out to sacrifice on the Alban Mount. Marcus was the honorary protector of the city while they were away, and apparently “he conducted himself very brilliantly both in the presence of the magistrates and at the banquets of the Emperor Hadrian.”

Heir to the Empire

Though Marcus enjoyed the same pursuits as other young men, and was skilled at boxing, wrestling, running, hunting, and ball games, “his ardour for philosophy distracted him from all these pursuits and made him serious and dignified. But, not ruining, however, a certain geniality in him.” He proved his devotion to the simple life of a stoic in his actions too. When he was seventeen, his paternal grandfather died, and his mother came to him to ask if he might leave some portion of his inheritance to his sister. Marcus replied that he was more than content with the estate that his maternal grandfather had left him, and he not only signed over the entire new inheritance to his sister, he also told his mother that she could leave her fortune to his sister as well.

Meanwhile, Hadrian’s health had been slowly fading, and he was desperate to find an heir. He clearly wanted it to be Marcus, but his favorite was still too young for the position. Hadrian resolved to find a placeholder, an older statesman to hold the position until Marcus could take over. His first choice was Ceionius Commodus, and Hadrian insisted that Commodus adopt Marcus and betroth him to his own daughter, Ceionia Fabia. Commodus fit the role of temporary heir rather too well, however, for he died only about a year later, leaving Hadrian again without an heir. His next choice was Senator Arrius Antoninus, a man of significant wealth, influence, and character. Antoninus accepted the position, and also dutifully fulfilled the role of son to his new adopted father, remaining by Hadrian’s side as the dying emperor battled a painful and debilitating illness.  

Emperor Antoninus Pius

Antoninus’s loyalty remained steadfast after Hadrian’s death, and earned him the title “Pius” from the Senate. Hadrian had maintained a shaky relationship with the Senate, and initially the governing body did not want to vote him divinity. Antoninus vehemently insisted, and finally gave them an ultimatum; he would refuse to be emperor if they did not grant Hadrian the expected posthumous honors. The Senate begrudgingly relented. Antoninus promptly adopted both Marcus and also the young son of Ceionius Commodus, Lucius.

Marcus, however, was utterly appalled to be adopted into the imperial family, and had to be pressured into taking up residence at the royal palace. He was convinced that the position would hinder his pursuit of stoicism and righteous living, and when “the members of his household asked him why he was sorry to receive royal adoption, he enumerated to them the evil things that sovereignty involved.” Eventually he managed to make peace with the change, helped, no doubt, by the genuine respect, loyalty and deep affection that grew between Marcus and his adopted father, Antoninus Pius.

What to See Here?

The Caelian Hill’s main ancient site is the Baths of Caracalla, an enormous third century complex of which the main block alone sprawled more than 25,000 metres. Regrettably little of the villas survive that were built under it. Also worth visiting for the thirteenth century BC obelisk that stands within its surrounding parkland is Villa Celimontana.  The villa stands on the peak of the Caelian while its grounds stretch on between the valley of the Aventine and the Caelian. Nothing remains of the Temple of Hercules Victor, which Corinth’s destroyer Lucius Mummius erected on the hill between 146 and 142 BC near where the Church of Santi Quattro Coronati now stands. Visit the Vatican Museums, however, and you can find the temple’s original dedicatory inscription.

Caelian Hill on Timetravelrome App:

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Sources: Cassius Dio, Roman History; Marcus Aurelius, Meditations; Sextus Aurelius Victor, Epitome De Caesaribus; Historia Augusta, The Life of Antoninus Pius.

Header image: Baths of Caracalla, photo by Ethan Doyle White, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

Nerva

Some modern historians think of Nerva as a weak and hesitant committee man. In reality, he was clearly clever and shrewd; simply wise enough to seek the counsel of others. He navigated the political quagmire of Rome and enjoyed a successful career while remaining close to six successive emperors during chaos and civil war. He is the only person besides Vespasian’s own son Titus to serve as the Emperor’s co-consul. When conspirators in the Senate planned Domitian’s murder, they had already chosen Nerva as his successor. 

A proven statesman, Nerva re-built the trust of both the people and the Senate and forestalled another civil war. He was well into his sixties, often ill, and physically weak, with no natural children; a perfect placeholder.  The army and the Praetorian Guard were the only unpredictable factions. Nerva’s choice of successor, the shrewd and highly popular general Trajan, ensured full support. He only reigned for fifteen months, but managed to institute popular policies and launch important building programs.  He was remembered fondly by his contemporaries. 

What Site is most closely related with Nerva? We think it is the eponymous Forum in Rome. Often disregarded by tourists, the Forum of Nerva was the fourth and smallest of the imperial fora, but it still reminds us of the legacy of the first of the “good” Emperors of Rome. 

Trajan

Trajan was a perfect Emperor to follow Nerva. He was the ideal Roman; ambitious, skilled in politics and military strategy, restlessly expansionist, yet also kind and fair. Trajan was equally an emperor and a general. He led his armies on the battlefield, and the Empire reached the height of its size during his rule. His soldiers adored him. He would spend the first hours after a battle visiting with the wounded among his men. During one such visit, the army medics ran out of bandages. Trajan immediately cut up his own clothing into strips and offered it to them to dress the soldier’s wounds.

He was equally tactful in his administrative work. He maintained a high level of respect for the Senate and for the old customs of the Republic. The people praised his work to fix the crumbling Roman roads and public buildings. His many social and economic reforms were equally popular. One of these was among the first public welfare programs in history, designed to aid poor and orphaned children. He did all of this without exploiting Roman citizens or provincials. Every ancient source compliments Trajan. He was just, brave, humble, mild, generous, hard-working, trusting, and fiercely loyal. When his cousin died, Trajan adopted the man’s children, Hadrian and Paulina, and he later named Hadrian his heir.

What Site is most related with Trajan? An excellent choice would be Trajan’s Column, constructed in 113 A.D. and commemorating his victories in Dacia. Curiously it served as archetype for later rulers – for Marcus Aurelius and also for Napoleon, who used Trajan’s Column as a template for the depiction of his own military achievements, represented by the Vendôme Column that stands in Paris.

Hadrian

Coming after Trajan, Hadrian’s complex personality often confused his contemporaries. He frequently ran contrary to Roman ideals, preferring defensive strategy to imperialism and expansion. Early in his reign, he earned the suspicion of the Senate, and he was never able to escape that.  He was generally friendly and kind, treating people with respect and even visiting ill friends personally. Yet, unlike the firm loyalty of Trajan, several times he suddenly dropped formerly favored friends for no obvious reason. He was confident almost to the point of arrogance in his many interests and hobbies, intelligent, decisive, and charismatic. Yet he never displayed the fragile ego of many other Emperors, who would lash out viciously against critics. 

Once a woman approached him, and he brushed her off impatiently, saying he had no time for her. She shot back, “well, stop being emperor, then!” Where many might have had the woman punished for insolence, Hadrian humbly took the barb to heart. He stopped to allow her an audience.  Despite his brash and assured public face, Hadrian maintained a deep need for seclusion. His private rooms at his villa sat on a small island in the middle of a pond, accessible only by rowboat. Despite his contemporaries’ doubts, the Empire prospered under Hadrian, and he deserves his place among the five great emperors. Today, he is best remembered for the ruins of the ancient wall in England that bears his name.

What Site is most representative of Hadrian’s rule?  We suggest it could be the Hadrian’s Wall in northern England. It ran from the North Sea to the Irish Sea with a fort every five Roman miles. The Wall effectively reflects Hadrian’s time: splendor and magnificence in Rome, but tempered by the emerging existential threat on the frontiers of the Empire.

Antoninus Pius

Chosen mainly as a placeholder, Antoninus Pius was already middle-aged when Hadrian picked him as his successor. Hadrian’s favorite was still too young, and the Emperor was growing ever sicker. He appointed Antoninus his successor, if he would adopt Marcus and another boy, Lucius Verus, next, as joint heirs. Antoninus stayed strongly loyalty to Hadrian, remaining by his side to the very end.  He then stood up to the Senate when they refused to deify Hadrian just after the Emperor’s death. Antoninus threatened to resign, and they finally agreed.

He was a beloved ruler, never much for war, instead holding a deep regard for life. His character was flawless. He refused any bribes, and met all problems brought to him with the same focus. The status of the suppliant did not matter. He was humble, cheerful, prudent, wise, and had a soft heart. Antoninus and Marcus loved one another dearly. Marcus began to rule jointly with his adopted father toward the end of his life. 

What Site is most closely related with Antoninus Pius? It is probably the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in Rome.  The temple was initially dedicated only to Antoninus’s deceased wife, Faustina the Elder. When the Emperor was deified by the Senate after his own death, the temple was re-dedicated to both himself and his wife. Antoninus and Faustina are believed to have enjoyed a happy marriage and the Temple still reminds us of their happy union. 

Marcus Aurelius

Perhaps the greatest ruler of all time, Marcus Aurelius did not even want to become emperor. Serious and smart, he had devoted himself to Stoic philosophy from a young age. When told he was to be the adopted heir, he was furious, but eventually agreed. He ruled as co-emperor with his adopted brother Lucius Verus, until the latter died while on campaign. No other emperor is praised as highly as Marcus Aurelius. Cassius Dio named him the best Emperor in the history of Rome. He was pleasant, deeply kind-hearted, and hated violence. During his rule, he would not even allow gladiators to fight with real weapons. Though frugal, he was still generous to his subjects, forgiving, and also very respectful of the Senate. 

He was the perfect philosopher king. His only failure was that he produced a natural son. The Five Great Emperors had all been chosen deliberately for their abilities and character, and adopted to ensure succession. Upon Marcus Aurelius’s death, his vicious son Commodus became emperor. Cassius Dio says that it degraded Rome “from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust.” 

What Site would we associate with Marcus Aurelius? Perhaps the most well-known is his famous Column in Rome, completed in 193 A.D. It was made of Carrara marble and dedicated to his victories over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes. Marcus Aurelius is seen as the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of peace and prosperity for the Empire. His Stoic philosophy, which can be read in his personal journal, now published as Meditations, have been praised for centuries.

We have proposed our ideas of the iconic sites that most represent the five “Good Emperors” of ancient Rome. Do you have other ideas? Share your thoughts with us! 

Sources: Cassius Dio, Roman History ; Sextus Aurelius Victor, Epitome De Caesaribus ; Marcus Aurelius, Meditations ; Historia Augusta

Photo: Hadrian Column by djedj is licensed under  CC0