“Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale her infinite variety. Other women cloy the appetites they feed: but she makes hungry where most she satisfies.”

– Antony and Cleopatra, Shakespeare

Meeting on the Kydnos

Cleopatra was not deeply involved in the civil wars that immediately followed the assassination of Caesar, though she stayed in steadfast support of her former lover – whether from loyalty or a shrewd evaluation of the likely winners. Both Cassius, one of Caesar’s assassins, and Dolabella, a leader of the party loyal to Caesar, petitioned Cleopatra for support. Although she committed four legions to Dolabella, they were captured by Cassius and later Serapion, the governor of Cyprus appointed by Cleopatra, defected to the conspirators, leaving Cleopatra’s loyalties in doubt.

Cleopatra Gate in Tarsus. By CeeGee – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

In order to reaffirm her loyalties, Cleopatra set sail for Greece with a large, well-provisioned fleet, intending to aid Octavian and Antony in the war against Brutus and Cassius. Unfortunately, she ran into heavy weather off the coast of Libya that badly damaged her fleet and she was forced to limp back to Alexandria, herself suffering from illness. By the time she had recovered and gotten her fleet refitted, Octavian and Antony had triumphed over the conspirators at the Battle of Philippi and the war was won.

Ancient road in Tarsus. By CeeGee – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Octavian and Antony effectively split administration of the Roman provinces between the two of them, with Octavian controlling the western half and Antony the eastern. Antony set up headquarters in Tarsus, and summoned Cleopatra to pay him audience there. The queen initially refused, but eventually agreed to visit, and sailed from Alexandria and up the Kydnos River on lavishly decorated ships.

First Impressions

Cleopatra had every intention of making an unforgettable impression as she sailed up the river “in a barge with gilded poop, its sails spread purple, its rowers urging it on with silver oars to the sound of the flute blended with pipes and lutes. She herself reclined beneath a canopy spangled with gold, adorned like Venus in a painting, while boys like Loves in paintings stood on either side and fanned her. Likewise also the fairest of her serving-maidens, attired like Nereïds and Graces, were stationed, some at the rudder-sweeps, and others at the reefing-ropes. Wondrous odours from countless incense-offerings diffused themselves along the river-banks.”

The Disembarkation of Cleopatra at Tarsus by Claude Lorrain (1642). Public Domain.

The inhabitants of Tarsus whispered that Venus had arrived to join in revels with Bacchus, and so it proved. Cleopatra and her courtiers entertained Antony with opulent luxury aboard their ships, which were adorned in a myriad of draping lights. The next day, Antony gave a feast in return, but it paled in comparison with Cleopatra’s preparations the night before. Nevertheless, Cleopatra made light of the discrepancy, and charmed Antony with her ready intelligence and easy manner. Plutarch gave perhaps the most complete, yet succinct description of her abilities:

“Her beauty, as we are told, was in itself not altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who saw her; but converse with her had an irresistible charm, and her presence, combined with the persuasiveness of her discourse and the character which was somehow diffused about her behaviour towards others, had something stimulating about it. There was sweetness also in the tones of her voice; and her tongue, like an instrument of many strings, she could readily turn to whatever language she pleased.”

A Luxurious Affair

Antony was suitably enthralled by the charismatic queen, and granted her requests to execute both her own sister, Arsinoe IV, and the traitorous governor of Cyprus. She left Tarsus with an invitation to Antony to join her in Egypt, which he swiftly did. There the two enjoyed a luxurious affair, even creating their own association which they called “The Inimitable Livers,” and every day they feasted one another in costly fashion. The affair also produced offspring, a twin brother and sister whom Cleopatra named Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Unlike Caesar, Antony openly acknowledged the two as his own.

Mark Antony & Cleopatra. Circa 36-34 BC. AR Tetradrachm. Obv: diademed bust of Cleopatra right, wearing earring, necklace, and embroidered dress. Rev: bare head of Antony right. Used by permission of www.cngcoins.com

Octavian had little difficulty turning Antony’s dalliances in Egypt to his advantage back in Italy, where hostility was rising between the two former allies. Antony’s brother and his wife, Fulvia, even staged a failed coup against Octavian, which came to be known as the Perusine War. Though Fulvia escaped death in the uprising, she died soon after while exiled in Greece. Her death temporarily reconciled Antony and Octavian, and Octavian gave Antony his sister, Octavia, in marriage. Yet Antony soon enough left his new wife with his children by Fulvia and returned to Cleopatra in the east.

Egypt, The Egyptian Museum, children of Cleopatra and Marc Antony, Cleopatra Selene, Caesarion, limestone. Source: www.historytoday.com

When the rift between the two men began to grow once again, Octavian easily swayed public opinion against Antony by pointing to the latter’s obsession with Egypt and betrayal of his good, loyal Roman wife. The situation finally exploded in early 32 B.C., when Cleopatra convinced Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce. Octavian used this as a justification to seize Antony’s will and read it aloud, revealing to the fury of the Romans present that Antony intended to make Alexandria the capital of the Roman Republic. Octavian officially declared war on Cleopatra, not on Antony, though he knew that the latter would join Cleopatra in the fight.

Defeat and Death

The war was relatively short-lived. Antony and Cleopatra had lost numerous allies, and though their ships outnumbered Octavian’s, their crews were far less experienced and skilled. They met Octavian’s fleet, under the command of Marcus Agrippa, for battle outside their headquarters at Actium, and eventually suffered a major defeat. Both Antony and Cleopatra escaped from Actium, fleeing back to Egypt where they landed at Paraitonion and drifted apart. Antony vainly hoped to rally allies to his cause, and Cleopatra planned an escape to India by sea, a journey known to the Ptolemaic kings for generations. Her hopes were dashed, however, when Malichus I, King of Nabatea, burned the ships she had staged for the escape.

Relief commemorating the Battle of Actium discovered in Avellino. Carrara marble, Tiberian period. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Antony and Cleopatra waited anxiously in Alexandria for the arrival of Octavian, who received the surrender of Antony’s fleet and cavalry in early August of 30 B.C. Cleopatra hid in her tomb and sent a message to Antony that she had committed suicide. In despair and grief, he stabbed himself in the stomach. A stomach wound does not kill quickly, however, and Antony was brought, badly wounded, to the tomb, where Cleopatra lifted him with ropes, smeared with blood and struggling against overwhelming pain, over the great barrier at the entrance of the tomb. He died in her arms.

Dying Antony brought to Cleopatra. Eugène-Ernest Hillemacher. Public Domain.

Cleopatra attempted to negotiate with Octavian, first diplomatically and then romantically, but Octavian rejected her advances. Finally, learning that she was to be moved to Rome and refusing to be led in a Roman triumph, Cleopatra took her own life. Famously, she is said to have died by allowing a venomous snake, an asp, to bite her. Octavian allowed Cleopatra and Antony to be buried together, but their tomb has yet to be found.

What to See Here Now?

Tarsus:

There are several significant remains of antiquity to be seen in Tarsus, though the state of preservation varies with most in need of restoration and preservation. One of the most striking survivors from antiquity is the so-called “Cleopatra Gate” in the west of the city; according to legend this great arched gateway is the entrance into the city which was taken by Antony and Cleopatra. There is also an impressive bridge, dating to the Justinianic period (early 6th century), when the city was restored. It spans over the Berdan River and remains in good condition. The museums in Tarsus are rich in archaeological finds.

Tarsus, Cilicia, Turkey. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Paraitonion:

Paraitonion is a large archeological area, but perhaps the most well-known historical attraction is the Temple of Ramesses II. Also of note are the ruins of a Ptolemaic Era anchorage site in the harbor, and an early Coptic chapel of the Roman Period, perhaps from the 1st century, with several inscribed caves.

Abu Simbel Temples of Ramesses II and Nefertari. Taken by Than217, Public Domain.

Sources: Sources: Plutarch, Life of Caesar; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Appian, Civil Wars; Caesar, African Wars; Suetonius, Life of Caesar

Header image: The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra. By Lawrence Alma-Tadema – Sotheby's New York, 05 Mai 2011, lot 65, Public Domain.

Fulvia

 Though modern history often believes that women could not be involved in the political realm, the ancient historians themselves prove this false, mentioning many famous women whose political clout and machinations matched that of the men around them. One such woman was Fulvia. Intelligent, charming, ambitious, and ruthless, she possessed the skills necessary to navigate the treacherous political atmosphere of the failing Roman Republic and exerted powerful influence both over and through three well-placed husbands. She even earned the distinction of being the first living woman in Roman history to be displayed on a coin, and at a time when the only other living men on coins were the powerful three members of the Second Triumvirate.

First Marriage

She first married Publius Clodius Pulcher. Clodius reflected Julius Caesar, whom he indeed supported, in that despite his wealth and status, he worked hard to become popular with the people of Rome, making him rather unpopular with his fellow Senators. In 52 B.C., Clodius’s rivalry with Titus Annius Milo devolved into gang violence in the streets. In one such confrontation, Milo’s supporters murdered Clodius and left his body on the side of the road. Another senator found the corpse and brought it back to Fulvia.

Fulvia placed the wounded body on display in her atrium and publically mourned him, arousing much sympathy. Eventually, Clodius’s body was paraded, still naked, to the forum, rousing mob riots in the streets that burned down the Senate building while cremating Clodius within.  Milo was eventually put on trial, and Fulvia testified against him, moving many of the attendees with her speech and her tears. Milo was found guilty and exiled, and Fulvia remarried within the year.

Widowed Again

Her second husband, Gaius Scribonius Curio, found his political career significantly advanced by Fulvia’s influence. However, after only two years of marriage, Fulvia was again a widow. Curio died fighting for Julius Caesar in Africa. Fulvia’s next marriage reached even higher, to Mark Antony, Caesar’s right hand man. Fulvia remained highly active in supporting her husband politically.

The gangs that had surrounded her husband, Clodius, had transferred their allegiance to her, and she brought them to fight for Antony when he clashed with Publius Cornelius Dolabella in the Roman Forum. She and Antony both became fierce political rivals of Cicero, and Cicero targeted her in his speeches just like her husband. When Cicero tried to have Antony declared an enemy of Rome in his absence from the city, Fulvia’s campaigning helped to block the measure.

The Fourth Triumvir

After Caesar’s murder in 44 B.C., Antony and Fulvia seized wealth and power. Eventually, Antony formed the Second Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus, and Fulvia offered her daughter from her first marriage, Clodia, to Octavian in marriage to further seal the deal. Some historians have argued that Fulvia was an unofficial fourth member of the Triumvirate.

In the proscriptions that followed, Cassius Dio wrote that she “also caused the death of many, both to satisfy her enmity and to gain their wealth… When, however, the head of Cicero also was brought to them one day, Antony uttered many bitter reproaches against it and then ordered it to be exposed on the rostra more prominently than the rest… And Fulvia took the head into her hands before it was removed, and after abusing it spitefully and spitting upon it, set it on her knees, opened the mouth, and pulled out the tongue, which she pierced with the pins that she used for her hair, at the same time uttering many brutal jests.”

The Perusine War

By 41 B.C., Caesar’s murderers were dead, Antony was in Egypt with Cleopatra controlling the eastern half of the Roman Empire and Octavian was attempting to organize the western half from Rome. Yet their shaky alliance was crumbling, and back in Rome, Fulvia again took an ambitious step in political matters. With the partnership of Lucius Antonius, Antony’s brother, she gathered soldiers loyal to Antony and moved against Octavian. The Antonine forces even held Rome itself briefly, but withdrew when Octavian swept through Sentinum and continued on towards Rome. Octavian retook the capital without bloodshed, and Fulvia and Lucius retreated to Perusia.

The city occupied a strong strategic position, and the siege was a long and bloody one, only ending when Fulvia and Lucius were forced to surrender in the face of starvation. Octavian spared Fulvia and Lucius, only exiling them, but he dealt brutally with those under them. Three hundred soldiers and many of the junior senators who had declared in support of the Antonine party “were led to the altar consecrated to [Julius] Caesar and were there sacrificed.” Octavian executed the majority of the citizens of Perusia and put the city itself to flame. The old Etruscan walls were some of the only structures to survive. It was not until centuries later that Perusia returned to its former glory.

A Tame Resolution

Fulvia, meanwhile, rejoined her husband in Athens. He was reportedly furious with her over the events of the Perusine War. Nevertheless, she nearly convinced Antony to march on Rome and engage directly with Octavian, but became ill and passed away before she had fully won him over. In the absence of her influence, Octavian offered Antony a peace agreement and he accepted, prolonging the conflict over the rule of Rome for another decade.

What to See in Perusia now ?

Perugia is home to the Arch of Augustus, an Etruscan construction from the third century BC that is one of the earliest examples of use the rounded arch (perfected during later Roman architecture). One can also visit the National Archaeological Museum of Perugia (Piazza Giordano Bruno, 10) that showcases an array of artifacts, many of which were discovered in past archaeological digs in the area.  

Perusia on Timetravelrome App:

Sources: Plutarch, Life of Antony; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Cicero, Philippics; Asconius, On Cicero’s Pro Milone.

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Header image: PHRYGIA, Eumeneia. Circa 41-40 BC. Laureate female head (Fulvia ?) right / Athena standing left, holding shield and spear. Source: www.cngcoins.com. Used by permission of CNG.

Trapped in Greece

Antony had been enjoying his rule and his lavish lifestyle from the ancient city of Alexandria in Egypt. He had also been enjoying the attentions of Cleopatra, Egypt’s queen, despite his previous marriage to Octavian’s sister. Octavian used Antony’s dalliances to great advantage back in Rome, vilifying Antony for his unfaithfulness. It helped his cause even further that Octavia remained the picture of a noble Roman wife, devotedly caring for her and Antony’s children even as Antony made plans to divorce her and marry his Egyptian queen. Antony’s devotion to Cleopatra proved much of his undoing. Octavian was able to convince most of the Senate that Antony intended to undermine the power of Rome and hand control to foreigners in the East.

As conflict became inevitable, Antony and Cleopatra moved their forces to Greece, positioning the main strength of their navy in the port of Actium. Moving quickly, Octavian moved his forces by ship across the Adriatic Sea to attack Antony in Greece. Landing much of the army north of Actium, Octavian led his soldiers to cut off Antony and Cleopatra’s escape route by land. Meanwhile, Agrippa, commanding the navy, blockaded the port and cut off the supply lines. As the siege continued and Antony’s position grew worse, his soldiers deserted him in large numbers to Octavian. Eventually Cleopatra, who commanded her own ships in Antony’s fleet, convinced Antony and his generals that they should abandon the fortified positions in Greece and escape by boat back to Egypt. From there, they could launch a much stronger defense.

Escape from Actium

Octavian learned of their plan from deserters of Antony’s camp. As a result, he believed that he should allow Antony and Cleopatra to slip past but prepare to attack them from behind. This way, when he proved to their men that they intended to flee, he hoped to win over the soldiers to his cause with little fighting and bloodshed. However, he capitulated to the advice of Agrippa, who knew the ships better and feared that if Antony and Cleopatra came past in their lightest ships, the slower Roman vessels would not be able to catch them. As a result, Octavian prepared his vessels for a full confrontation. Soon after, Antony and Cleopatra led their fleet out of the port at Actium. However, they made no attempt to engage until Octavian and Agrippa moved to surround them. Forced reluctantly into battle, they advanced to meet their enemies.

“[Octavian’s] followers, having smaller and swifter ships, would dash forward and ram the enemy, being armoured on all sides to avoid receiving damage. If they sank a vessel, well and good; if not, they would back water before coming to grips, and would either ram the same vessels suddenly again, or would let those go and turn their attention to others…The enemy, on the other hand, tried to hit the approaching ships with dense showers of stones and arrows, and to cast iron grapnels upon their assailants. And in case they could reach them they got the better of it, but if they missed, their own boats would be pierced and would sink, or else in their endeavour to avoid this calamity they would waste time and lay themselves more open to attack by other ships.”

Flight and Defeat

In this way, the battle continued indecisive for a long while. Eventually, a sudden decision by Cleopatra began to turn the tide. Hoping for an escape, and with the wind turning favorably for them to sail toward Egypt, she unexpectedly turned her flagship from the battle and signaled for her followers to do the same. Thinking that they were running because they thought the battle lost, Antony also turned and fled. His remaining vessels grew confused and disheartened, and made to raise their sails and follow. Yet while they made these preparations, Octavian and Agrippa attacked, and the close quarters fighting turned brutal and bitter. When the battle still remained undecided, Octavian’s forces reluctantly turned to their final resort. Sending flaming arrows and missiles onto the enemy ships, they set them ablaze. 

“When the fire spread, the most terrible of fates came upon them. Some, and particularly the sailors, perished by the smoke before the flame so much as approached them, while others were roasted in the midst of it as though in ovens. Others were consumed in their armour when it became heated.  There were still others, who, before they should suffer such a death, or when they were half-burned, threw off their armour and were wounded by the shots which came from a distance, or again leaped into the sea and were drowned, or were struck by their opponents and sank. Those alone found a death that was tolerable, considering the sufferings which prevailed, who were killed by their fellows in return for the same service, or else killed themselves, before any such fate could befall them; for they not only had no tortures to endure.”

Founding of Nicopolis

Knowing they would not be able to catch the fleeing Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian and Agrippa made no immediate move to do so. Instead, they first celebrated their victory, establishing a festival in honor of the battle and also founding the city of Nicopolis on the site where Octavian had made his camp. The city prospered as a successful center for commerce and eventually became the capital of the Roman province of Epirus Vetus under Emperor Trajan. Nicopolis took damage from an earthquake in 375 B.C., and then at the hands of maurading Goths, Huns, and Vandals. It was restored by Emperor Justinian in the mid-6^th century, but eventually lost its economic pre-eminence to the city of Preveza in the Middle Ages.

What to See Here:

Modern visitors can enjoy a a wealth of archaeological remains of ancient Nicopolis. The site is referred to as Palaea Preveza (Old Preveza). It is bounded by the remains of the defensive fortifications. They are a combination of the original Augustan structures and the Justinianic rebuilds. To the west, there is an Odeion, the impressive remains of the city’s Hadrianic aqueduct, and a bath building. There are also the remains of the stadium which was the venue for the famous Actian Games. These are the games that the Emperor Nero was so victorious in during his tour of the Hellenistic provinces in the mid-1st century A.D. The remains of the villa of Manius Antoninus are notable for the splendour of the mosaics that have survived. The nearby Archaeological Museum of Nicopolis is rich in the finds from the site and worth a visit.

Nikopolis on Timetravelrome App:

Sources:  Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Cassius Dio, Roman History.

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Battle of Actium, a painting by Lorenzo A. Castro, now in Royal Museums Greenwich. The image is in the public domain.