The capital of the UK is today embroiled in a tempestuous storm over its position within the wider European community as the Brexit debate rumbles incessantly on. Some 1700 years ago, the city was the stage for another attempt at political separation. This is the story of the revolt of Carausius.

Rebellion

The 3^rd century AD is a challenging era for classicists and ancient historians to study. An endemic weakening of the Roman Empire in the face of external pressures led to a rapid turnaround of emperors and pronounced political and social turmoil. Bloodshed, usurpation, and revolt were common sites in the political landscape. The turbulence was manifest most clearly at the edges of Empire, with a usurper state – the Gallic Empire of the Emperor Postumus – having been established in 260 AD already. Although Gaul, Hispania, and Britain were restored to Roman control by the Emperor Aurelian – most famous for his eponymous circuit of defensive walls around Rome – in 274, the precedent had been set.

In 286 AD, the command of the regional navy in the English channel was given to Carausius. His elevation to the position of admiral crowed a rags to riches story for a man of humble origins. His task, as admiral of the fleet based at Bonoia (modern Boulogne), was to clear the English Channel of Saxon and Frankish raiders and bolster the imperial frontiers against these incursions. Carausius however, was accused of collaboration with the raiders, motivated by financial greed. The Emperor Maximian – who was at this time the Augustus and western colleague of Diocletian – ordered the admiral to be put to death. Rather than accept his fate, Carausius declared himself the Emperor of Britain, separating the province from centralised imperial control. With just the fleet, three legions stationed in Britain, one from neighbouring Gaul, and a scattering of auxiliary units from cross the Empire, Carausius set to the task of presenting his Empire of Britain as a viable, legitimate alternative to Rome.

Becoming British, Remaining Roman?

“Disorder thus prevailed throughout the world, while Carausius was taking arms in Britain…”[1]

The 3^rd century is notoriously problematic to explore thanks to a dearth of quality sources, both textual and material. Fortunately, numismatics – ancient coinage – can provide crucial insight into this turbulent period of history. Carausius is known to have appealed to native British discontent with Roman rule, and began minting his own coinage, many of which had legends on them that championed the island province. These included coins that referred to the new ‘Emperor’ as Restitutor Britanniae (the restorer of Britain), whereas others would depict him with Britannia, the personified deity who symbolised the province.

In this denarius of Carausius, one can see the emperor’s portrait on the obverse, whilst on the reverse, one can see Britannia on the right (note her flowing robes) clasping hands with the cuirassed emperor. This was a clear symbol of the usurper’s proclaimed dedication to the island province.

It is nevertheless notable that Carausius seemingly maintained strong ideological links to the Roman Empire as well. In his numismatic presentation he is presented in terms and images that are recognisably Roman, whilst the coins themselves were brought into line with Roman issues. Elsewhere, his epigraphic representation is very reminiscent of Roman tradition, as is indicated by the discovery of a milestone dedicated to Carausius uncovered in Carlisle, at the very edges of the Empire.[2] The usurper’s influence seemingly held sway over the entirety of the province, so it is surprising that his attempted break from the Empire was keen to retain so many recognisably Roman features.

Retaliation

Carausius secession from the Empire was to be short lived. By 293 the Tetrarchs had mobilised, with the Constantius Chlorus – the father of the future Constantine the Great – was tasked with re-establishing imperial control over northern Gaul and Britain. He achieved this by first isolating Britain; by suffocating the Channel – such as through a siege of the port of Bononia – Constantius prevented aid getting into Britain, or rebels getting out. Although no invasion could take place yet, the pressure would prove too much for some: Allectus, who had been acting as treasurer for Carausius, murdered the ‘Emperor’ of Britain and assumed command himself. Three years later, the reconquest of the province of Britain could begin in earnest. The imperial forces landed near to modern Southampton. After burning their ships, they quickly routed the bulk of the rebel forces, including Allectus himself. Archaeologists have identified Calleva Atrebatum (modern Silchester) as a likely site of the rebel’s defeat. The remnants of the rebellious forces were hunted down, with many of them being caught and massacred in Londinium as they were sacking the city, the capital of the island then as now.

Although it is doubtful as to whether Constantius himself ever made it across the Channel in time for the initial battle and subsequent rout, he nevertheless ensured that he took centre stage in the resultant celebrations. Whereas just over a decade previously, Carausius had been proclaiming himself the ‘Restorer’ of Britain, now Constantius was proclaiming himself the Liberator of the island. Again, numismatic evidence provides clear evidence of this:

One can see on the coin above Constantius, mounted, being received by a grateful citizen of the city of Londinium (LON is visible just beneath the knees of the native). An electrotype of this rare coin is stored in the British Museum.

As well as celebrating the event on coinage, it would appear that Constantius undertook some efforts to restore Londinium following the destruction it suffered at the hands of Allectus’ followers. A set of thermae, a bathhouse – were built in the forum in around 300 AD. Although comparatively modest in size – especially when compared to other thermae from around the Empire – their construction nevertheless served to symbolise the re-imposition of Roman imperial culture back on to the city and the island more generally.

What to see in Londinium now:

The history of ancient Londinium can be found all over a modern city that generally celebrates its past and makes it accessible and engaging to visitors. The British Museum has a wealth of material relating to ancient history, including Roman Britain, and it should be a priority on any visit. Similarly, the Museum of London is excellent, providing a chronological biography of the city, including a detailed history of Roman Londinium. The displays and material provide an excellent account of the urban development of Londinium, which was situated on the north bank of the Thames, becoming in time the capital of an imperial province. At this museum, one can see a wealth of archaeological material that is clearly laid-out to give visitors a sense of what life would have been like in the ancient city. In the Guildhall Art Gallery, one is able to use digital technology to explore the Amphitheatre which was once in the centre of the ancient city.

Around the city itself there are scattered traces of the ancient world. As one would expect, the expansive modernisation of the city has led to material being lost or decontextualized. Using the TimeTravelRome app will help you navigate between sites, including the remains of the ancient roads, defensive walls and gatehouses that are still standing to the north west, with Cripple Gate being perhaps the best preserved for visitors to explore. Towards the east of the ancient city, one can see the remains of the 3^rd century Billingsgate Bath house. The ancient structure is still in a state of reasonably good preservation, and visitors are able to identify the main features of a typical Roman thermae, including the frigidarium (the cold room), the caldarium (hot room), and the traces of the hypocaust heating system.

Most recently, London’s Mithraeum has re-opened to the public after extensive renovation works on the exhibit. This is arguably the highlight of a tour of Roman Londinium. The material associated with this eastern mystery cult – most notably the incredible tauroctony relief showing the god Mithras slaying the bull – is excellently curated and contextualised for visitors. A trip to London’s Mithraeum serves as an excellent reminder of the connections and processes of cultural exchange that occurred right across the ancient Empire.

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[1] Eutropius, Breviarium, 6.22 (http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm)

[2] RIB2291, https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/2291

Author: Kieren Johns for Timetravelrome

Header picture: Carausius, 286 -293. Aureus, Londinium October 286-March 287. Obv.: Laureate, draped and cuirassed bust Rev.: Pax standing holding olive branch and vertical sceptre. Auction 114; lot 599. Used by permission of NAC.

The Curious Case of Ancient Londinium’s Underground God

Today, London is the UK’s largest city. Two thousand years ago, the situation was very much the same. After the original settlement had been razed in 60/61 AD during the revolt of Boudicca and the Iceni tribe, it was swiftly rebuilt as a planned Roman town. This meant the new site adhered to the typical orthogonal urban formation of a central forum space surrounded by grids of ordered streets. Prior to Boudicca’s revolt, ancient Londinium was already beginning to prosper as the historian Tacitus makes clear, describing it as:

“a busy centre, chiefly through its crowd of merchants and stores.” (1)

The Thames allowed the newly restored city to flourish, attracting people, goods, and money. Londinium expanded rapidly during this period, and by the end of the 1^st century AD historians now estimate that as many as 60,000 people may have been living in the city. By the second century, when the Empire was enjoying its “Golden Age” under the auspicious rule of the “good” Antonine emperors, the ancient city of Londinium was at its zenith. It had replaced Camulodunum (Colchester) as the capital of the Province of Britannia, whilst its urban features reflected its stature. The Forum and the Basilica were the largest structures north of the Alps at the time of the Emperor Hadrian’s visit in 122 AD. Visitors to the Museum of London can see excellent displays to give a sense of the impressive scale and wealth of the ancient city, as well as a whole host of the archaeological finds made. The latter years of the 2^nd century were not kind to the city however. A plague, connected to the well-known Antonine plague recorded by Cassius Dio amongst others in the western half of the empire, is believed to have been responsible for a significant reduction in population, bringing an end to the expansion of the city.

The turn of the 3rd century saw Londinium, like many places across the Empire, begin to go on the defensive. It was during the years 190-225 AD that the enormous defensive wall – known today as the London Wall, fragments of which visitors can still today – was built to protect the city. It was also at this time that the prestige of the city took a knock. The Emperor Septimius Severus, having seen off three other rivals to the throne, reorganised the provinces of the empire, including the division of Britain into Upper and Lower halves. Whilst Londinium remained the primary city of Lower Britannia, the Province of Upper Britannia was controlled by the new governor based in Eboracum (York). Despite the slight to its status, Londinium actually enjoyed something of a boost. The campaigns of Septimius Severus in Caledonia, in the far north of Britain, brought an influx of wealth into the country and Londinium benefitted with a spate of new construction works.

As well as the spate of new wealth, the armies of Severus likely brought with them new ideas and new beliefs. Just as it is today, ancient Londinium would have reflected the cosmopolitan nature of the Empire at large as cultures mingled freely. This was most clear in the religious practices and gods worshipped in the ancient city. Alongside the traditional deities of the Roman pantheon, such as Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, a host of deities from the edges of Empire also found willing devotees here. It was during the middle of the 3^rd century, that the eastern mystery cult of Mithras arrived in Londinium, likely in the hearts and minds of the soldiers passing through the city on their way to the north of the island.

The Mysterious Mithras

With his distinctive pointed Phrygian cap, Mithras is arguably the most well-known of the mystery cults that existed in the Roman Empire. Their secretive underground temples, known as Mithraea, have been found across the entire expanse of the empire, including within the imperial capital itself, from Eboracum in the north of Britain, through to Numidia in North Africa and Roman Syria on the eastern fringes of the empire.

As the term “Mystery Cult” suggests, the exact nature of Mithraism remains shrouded in conjecture and is the subject of much debate amongst historians and archaeologists. The plethora of sites from across the empire have returned a wealth of material related to the practice of the cult, but there is, as yet, not written narrative or theology to have been discovered in connection with Mithraism. This significantly problematises the interpretation of the material remains.

That being said, there are iconographic consistencies. The image most commonly associated with the cult of Mithras is the Tauroctony scene. In every Mithraeum, this image of Mithras slaying a sacred bull appears to have been the centre piece. There is no formulaic style for this scene’s presentation; the image can either be carved free-standing or in relief, and sometimes appears as a fresco painting instead. However, there the typical features that are consistent across the various media. Depicted in a cave, on which the subterranean Mithraea were modelled, Mithras is depicted in typical Anatolian costume, complete with the iconic Phrygian cap, holding the head of the bull back whilst cutting its throat. Elsewhere, one can usually see the god Sol, towards whom Mithras is normally looking, along with a dog and a snake and a scorpion who is pinching the testicles of the bull.

A God Underground

In 1954, the city of London was still recovering from the ravages of the Second World War. Swathes of the city had been reduced to rubble and reconstruction was high on the list of priorities. It was against this backdrop that the then director of the museum of London, W. F. Grimes, along with his colleague Audrey Williams, happened upon the discovery of an ancient Mithraeum in the heart of the UK capital.  When they first happened upon the Mithraeum, the excavators had hoped that they had found an early Christian church. However, the other archaeological remains, including a range of marble likenesses of Roman deities such as Minerva, Mercury, as well as Mithras himself, found at the site soon proved this identification untenable.

Excavations in the area of Walbrook in the late 19^th century had also returned a wealth of material that was likely associated with the Mithraeum as well. These included the Tauroctony relief, which includes a dedicatory inscription. Still in relatively good condition, one can see this relief and inscription today at the Museum of London – its picture is used for the header of this post.

One is able to identify all of the usual figures associated with the cult of Mithras. These include the cosmic characters, such as Sol and Luna (the Sun and the Moon) in the upper corners, along with the zodiac signs that adorn the circular band that surrounds the central scene. The inscription records the following:

ULPIUS SILVANNUS EMERITUS LEG II AUG VOTUM SOLVIT FACTUS ARAVSIONE

Ulpius Silvanus, emeritus of the Second Legion Augusta, paid his vow; enlisted at Orange (2)

The close relationship between the cult of Mithras and the soldiers of the empire are confirmed by this inscription.

Mithras on the Move

London’s Mithras can stake an unusual claim to fame for being the most mobile of the ancient gods in Britain. The Mithraeum has been moved not once, but as many as four times!

The original Mithraeum, which is believed to have been built ca.240 AD, would have stood, partially underground, on the eastern banks of the River Walbrook (a vital fresh water source in ancient Londinium which is now unfortunately subterranean). When Grimes and Williams happened across it in the 1950’s, they were left in a quandary – the site was being worked on for the construction of a modern office block, as part of London’s post-second world war recovery. Whilst debates trundled on over what to do with this remarkable archaeological discovery, the Mithraeum – having been disassembled and moved – sat in storage in a London builder’s yard for 8 years! Thankfully, a decision was reached to provide the public access to the site. The Mithraeum was rebuilt in 1962 almost 100 metres away from its original position to Temple Court. The smaller material associated with the sanctuary – including the head of Mithras and the other deities – were sent to the Museum of London. However, in a great loss to the archaeological record, the original timber benches from the Mithraeum, a tremendous rarity, were thrown away. Unfortunately, the reconstruction efforts were also met a largely negative reception, prompting accusations of inaccuracy amongst other criticisms relating to the use of modern materials to “fill-in the gaps”.

Today, the Mithraeum has moved once again. Fortunately for visitors to London now, however, the newly reconstructed sanctuary is one of the British capitals best ancient attractions. The Mithraeum has been re-moved back to its original location and is now part of the Bloomberg Company’s European Headquarters. Entrance to the Mithraeum is now free, and visitors must descend 7 meters below the modern street level to reach the reconstructed sanctuary: Mithras has been returned to his original subterranean setting. The reconstruction itself is much better than the earlier attempts in the 1960s. The recent efforts have used the original excavation reports from 1954 to produce an accurate reconstruction of the temple as it would have appeared in 240 AD, whilst the use of modern materials has been deliberately limited. Where new material has been essential, they are based on other structures from Roman Londinium. Visitors to the Mithraeum can also enjoy exploring some 600 archaeological items, all recovered from the site, that are now beautifully displayed here.  Keep a keen eye out for a small wooden tablet, which records the oldest known instance of a financial transaction in Britain, dated to 57 AD, fittingly returned to the centre of the modern country’s financial sector.

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Author: written for Timetravelrome by Kieren Johns.

Sources: (1)  Tacitus, Annals, 33.1 ;  (2) RIB 3

Header Photo: The central medallion with a bull-slaying scene, by Carole Raddato licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0