“Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale her infinite variety. Other women cloy the appetites they feed: but she makes hungry where most she satisfies.”

– Antony and Cleopatra, Shakespeare

Meeting on the Kydnos

Cleopatra was not deeply involved in the civil wars that immediately followed the assassination of Caesar, though she stayed in steadfast support of her former lover – whether from loyalty or a shrewd evaluation of the likely winners. Both Cassius, one of Caesar’s assassins, and Dolabella, a leader of the party loyal to Caesar, petitioned Cleopatra for support. Although she committed four legions to Dolabella, they were captured by Cassius and later Serapion, the governor of Cyprus appointed by Cleopatra, defected to the conspirators, leaving Cleopatra’s loyalties in doubt.

Cleopatra Gate in Tarsus. By CeeGee – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

In order to reaffirm her loyalties, Cleopatra set sail for Greece with a large, well-provisioned fleet, intending to aid Octavian and Antony in the war against Brutus and Cassius. Unfortunately, she ran into heavy weather off the coast of Libya that badly damaged her fleet and she was forced to limp back to Alexandria, herself suffering from illness. By the time she had recovered and gotten her fleet refitted, Octavian and Antony had triumphed over the conspirators at the Battle of Philippi and the war was won.

Ancient road in Tarsus. By CeeGee – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Octavian and Antony effectively split administration of the Roman provinces between the two of them, with Octavian controlling the western half and Antony the eastern. Antony set up headquarters in Tarsus, and summoned Cleopatra to pay him audience there. The queen initially refused, but eventually agreed to visit, and sailed from Alexandria and up the Kydnos River on lavishly decorated ships.

First Impressions

Cleopatra had every intention of making an unforgettable impression as she sailed up the river “in a barge with gilded poop, its sails spread purple, its rowers urging it on with silver oars to the sound of the flute blended with pipes and lutes. She herself reclined beneath a canopy spangled with gold, adorned like Venus in a painting, while boys like Loves in paintings stood on either side and fanned her. Likewise also the fairest of her serving-maidens, attired like Nereïds and Graces, were stationed, some at the rudder-sweeps, and others at the reefing-ropes. Wondrous odours from countless incense-offerings diffused themselves along the river-banks.”

The Disembarkation of Cleopatra at Tarsus by Claude Lorrain (1642). Public Domain.

The inhabitants of Tarsus whispered that Venus had arrived to join in revels with Bacchus, and so it proved. Cleopatra and her courtiers entertained Antony with opulent luxury aboard their ships, which were adorned in a myriad of draping lights. The next day, Antony gave a feast in return, but it paled in comparison with Cleopatra’s preparations the night before. Nevertheless, Cleopatra made light of the discrepancy, and charmed Antony with her ready intelligence and easy manner. Plutarch gave perhaps the most complete, yet succinct description of her abilities:

“Her beauty, as we are told, was in itself not altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who saw her; but converse with her had an irresistible charm, and her presence, combined with the persuasiveness of her discourse and the character which was somehow diffused about her behaviour towards others, had something stimulating about it. There was sweetness also in the tones of her voice; and her tongue, like an instrument of many strings, she could readily turn to whatever language she pleased.”

A Luxurious Affair

Antony was suitably enthralled by the charismatic queen, and granted her requests to execute both her own sister, Arsinoe IV, and the traitorous governor of Cyprus. She left Tarsus with an invitation to Antony to join her in Egypt, which he swiftly did. There the two enjoyed a luxurious affair, even creating their own association which they called “The Inimitable Livers,” and every day they feasted one another in costly fashion. The affair also produced offspring, a twin brother and sister whom Cleopatra named Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Unlike Caesar, Antony openly acknowledged the two as his own.

Mark Antony & Cleopatra. Circa 36-34 BC. AR Tetradrachm. Obv: diademed bust of Cleopatra right, wearing earring, necklace, and embroidered dress. Rev: bare head of Antony right. Used by permission of www.cngcoins.com

Octavian had little difficulty turning Antony’s dalliances in Egypt to his advantage back in Italy, where hostility was rising between the two former allies. Antony’s brother and his wife, Fulvia, even staged a failed coup against Octavian, which came to be known as the Perusine War. Though Fulvia escaped death in the uprising, she died soon after while exiled in Greece. Her death temporarily reconciled Antony and Octavian, and Octavian gave Antony his sister, Octavia, in marriage. Yet Antony soon enough left his new wife with his children by Fulvia and returned to Cleopatra in the east.

Egypt, The Egyptian Museum, children of Cleopatra and Marc Antony, Cleopatra Selene, Caesarion, limestone. Source: www.historytoday.com

When the rift between the two men began to grow once again, Octavian easily swayed public opinion against Antony by pointing to the latter’s obsession with Egypt and betrayal of his good, loyal Roman wife. The situation finally exploded in early 32 B.C., when Cleopatra convinced Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce. Octavian used this as a justification to seize Antony’s will and read it aloud, revealing to the fury of the Romans present that Antony intended to make Alexandria the capital of the Roman Republic. Octavian officially declared war on Cleopatra, not on Antony, though he knew that the latter would join Cleopatra in the fight.

Defeat and Death

The war was relatively short-lived. Antony and Cleopatra had lost numerous allies, and though their ships outnumbered Octavian’s, their crews were far less experienced and skilled. They met Octavian’s fleet, under the command of Marcus Agrippa, for battle outside their headquarters at Actium, and eventually suffered a major defeat. Both Antony and Cleopatra escaped from Actium, fleeing back to Egypt where they landed at Paraitonion and drifted apart. Antony vainly hoped to rally allies to his cause, and Cleopatra planned an escape to India by sea, a journey known to the Ptolemaic kings for generations. Her hopes were dashed, however, when Malichus I, King of Nabatea, burned the ships she had staged for the escape.

Relief commemorating the Battle of Actium discovered in Avellino. Carrara marble, Tiberian period. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Antony and Cleopatra waited anxiously in Alexandria for the arrival of Octavian, who received the surrender of Antony’s fleet and cavalry in early August of 30 B.C. Cleopatra hid in her tomb and sent a message to Antony that she had committed suicide. In despair and grief, he stabbed himself in the stomach. A stomach wound does not kill quickly, however, and Antony was brought, badly wounded, to the tomb, where Cleopatra lifted him with ropes, smeared with blood and struggling against overwhelming pain, over the great barrier at the entrance of the tomb. He died in her arms.

Dying Antony brought to Cleopatra. Eugène-Ernest Hillemacher. Public Domain.

Cleopatra attempted to negotiate with Octavian, first diplomatically and then romantically, but Octavian rejected her advances. Finally, learning that she was to be moved to Rome and refusing to be led in a Roman triumph, Cleopatra took her own life. Famously, she is said to have died by allowing a venomous snake, an asp, to bite her. Octavian allowed Cleopatra and Antony to be buried together, but their tomb has yet to be found.

What to See Here Now?

Tarsus:

There are several significant remains of antiquity to be seen in Tarsus, though the state of preservation varies with most in need of restoration and preservation. One of the most striking survivors from antiquity is the so-called “Cleopatra Gate” in the west of the city; according to legend this great arched gateway is the entrance into the city which was taken by Antony and Cleopatra. There is also an impressive bridge, dating to the Justinianic period (early 6th century), when the city was restored. It spans over the Berdan River and remains in good condition. The museums in Tarsus are rich in archaeological finds.

Tarsus, Cilicia, Turkey. By Carole Raddato. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Paraitonion:

Paraitonion is a large archeological area, but perhaps the most well-known historical attraction is the Temple of Ramesses II. Also of note are the ruins of a Ptolemaic Era anchorage site in the harbor, and an early Coptic chapel of the Roman Period, perhaps from the 1st century, with several inscribed caves.

Abu Simbel Temples of Ramesses II and Nefertari. Taken by Than217, Public Domain.

Sources: Sources: Plutarch, Life of Caesar; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Appian, Civil Wars; Caesar, African Wars; Suetonius, Life of Caesar

Header image: The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra. By Lawrence Alma-Tadema – Sotheby's New York, 05 Mai 2011, lot 65, Public Domain.

No archeological tour of Italy would be complete without a visit to Tibur, modern Tivoli. The city has a long history, dating back to the 13^th century B.C., when colonists from Alba Longa settled on the site. Tibur held a tumultuous relationship with Rome before it fell to its southern neighbors. Rome granted citizenship to Tibur in 90 B.C., after which the city became a favorite for wealthy Romans. Its streets housed luxurious villas for many famous individuals, including the poet Horace, and possibly Catullus and Statius as well, Maecenas, Emperor Augustus, and Zenobia of Palmyra, among others.

However, the most famous villa at Tibur belonged to the Emperor Hadrian. His sprawling residence was built to house any number of politicians and so continue the business of state outside of Rome, as well as being a private getaway for the emperor, who, despite his public charisma, remained something of a recluse. Today, Tibur houses a number of magnificent archaeological structures, including segments of Hadrian’s spectacular 200 acre villa, of which only a portion has been excavated.

Founding Myths

Despite the relatively mundane official history of Tibur, the Romans, of course, enjoyed a more colorful version. According to Cato the Elder, Catillus the Arcadian, son of Amphiaraus founded the city. Amphiaraus had been a highly honored seer and king of Argos. The legends tell of a fateful attack on Thebes, immortalized by Aeschylus in 467 B.C. in his tragic play “Seven Against Thebes.” Upon learning of his terrible patricide and marriage to his mother, the infamous Oedipus blinded himself and cursed his two sons, dooming them to divide the kingdom through violence. The sons, Eteocles and Polynices, attempted to subvert the curse by agreeing to take turns ruling Thebes. However, after his first year of rule, Eteocles refused to hand the throne to his brother.

Scene from The Seven against Thebes by Aeschylus. By Caivano Painter – Wolfgang Sauber (User:Xenophon), own work, 2008-04-10. Image renamed from Image:7 gegen Theben.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Polynices subsequently went to Argos. He bribed the wife of Amphiaraus, Eriphyle, with a necklace that had belonged to the daughter of Aphrodite. In exchange, she convinced her husband to join Polynices’ campaign against his brother. Despite knowing that the attack would fail, Amphiaraus fought bravely, but was eventually slaughtered along with the others. The Tiburtines believed that Amphiaraus had a son named Catillus who had accompanied him to Thebes. Catillus managed to escape the slaughter, and fled to Italy, where he established the colony of Tibur.

Conflict with Rome

During Etruscan times, Tibur was a Sabine city. Though initially friendly with Rome, in 361 B.C., the city allied itself with the invading Gauls. After the Romans defeated the Gallic invaders before the Colline Gate of Rome, the Gauls fled past Tibur. As they did so, some Tiburtines came out to watch, and pursuing Romans killed them as they passed. Because of this, consul Caius Poetilius Balbus celebrated a triumph over both the Gauls and the Tiburtines. The Tiburtines merely laughed at his triumph, asking when he had ever faced them in open battle.

Details of the antique walls of the city of Tivoli dating from the 4th century BC. By LPLT – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Accordingly, soon after, a group of Tiburtines marched on Rome, but they had been hoping for a surprise attack. The Romans were alerted, and soon attacked, driving the Tiburtines to flight. In the campaign that followed, Rome soundly defeated Tibur, and took several cities from them before the two cities negotiated a truce. In 338 B.C., Tibur officially became a part of Roman territory. Sections of the city’s defensive walls from this era remain in modern Tivoli.

Prophecy of the Tiburtine Sibyl

One of Tibur’s most famous individuals was the Tiburtine Sibyl, a respected oracle who contributed to the Sibylline Oracles of Rome. Ruins of her temple exist to this day. Ancient writers told of her encounter with Augustus, where he asked her if he should be worshipped as a god. Later Christian writers particularly enjoyed recounting this tale, and added that in reply she told him of a vision of Mary with the infant Jesus, sitting in prominence in the city of Rome.

General view of the temple of Vesta (left) and the temple of Sibyl (right) in Tivoli. By LPLT – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

The most famous piece by the Tiburtine Sibyl was her graphic and detailed prophecy of the end of days. It was a bestseller, and a number of scholars re-copied it throughout the medieval era, with probable errors and misinterpretations. However, it appears that the prophecy came to the sibyl as dream. In it, she saw nine suns in the sky, which represented nine generations of mankind. Each sun appeared more ugly and bloodstained than the one before it, and following the last sun came judgment day.

What to See Here?

Few places in the world are able to capture the extravagant and monumental extremes of Roman luxury like Tivoli. The area is simply bursting with magnificent sites. The most famous is without doubt Hadrian’s Villa, built in the first couple of decades of the second century AD. By 128 AD, it seems the 250-acre villa complex had become Hadrian’s official residence, connected to the capital via an efficient postal network and able to accommodate any number of emissaries or guests an emperor might have to entertain. Much of the villa remains unexcavated, but what is visible is truly magnificent. The remains of the Island Villa capture what was most likely the most beautiful pat of the emperor’s grand design, while the vast complex of baths, fountains, statues and even a theatre pay testament to the imperial scale of the project.

Tivoli – Wall of the Poikile of Hadrian’s Villa. By Patrik Kunec – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

As well as Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli is also home to the Temple of Vesta. Idyllically situated atop the ancient acropolis in Tivoli’s countryside, this circular temple dates to the first century BC. As is visible from an inscription on the temple’s architrave, one Lucius Gellius is to be credited either for constructing or restoring the temple. In its near vicinity lies another rectangular temple, often attributed to the Tiburtine Sibyl, while just outside the boundary of the ancient city lie the ruins of the expansive Sanctuary of Hercules the Winner (dating from the second century BC) and Temple of the Tosse (probably dating to the fourth century AD).

The Canopus, Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli. By Carole Raddato from FRANKFURT, Germany. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Tivoli in the Timetravlerome app

Tivoli and Hadrian’s villa are covered in the Timetravelrome app: all main monuments in the Hadrian’s villa are mapped and described.

Sources: Cato the Elder, Origines – quoted by Gaius Julius Solinus; Livy, History of Rome; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian.

Header image: PanoramaMaritimeTheater, photo by DerPaul – Own work, licensed under CC BY 3.0

Fulvia

 Though modern history often believes that women could not be involved in the political realm, the ancient historians themselves prove this false, mentioning many famous women whose political clout and machinations matched that of the men around them. One such woman was Fulvia. Intelligent, charming, ambitious, and ruthless, she possessed the skills necessary to navigate the treacherous political atmosphere of the failing Roman Republic and exerted powerful influence both over and through three well-placed husbands. She even earned the distinction of being the first living woman in Roman history to be displayed on a coin, and at a time when the only other living men on coins were the powerful three members of the Second Triumvirate.

First Marriage

She first married Publius Clodius Pulcher. Clodius reflected Julius Caesar, whom he indeed supported, in that despite his wealth and status, he worked hard to become popular with the people of Rome, making him rather unpopular with his fellow Senators. In 52 B.C., Clodius’s rivalry with Titus Annius Milo devolved into gang violence in the streets. In one such confrontation, Milo’s supporters murdered Clodius and left his body on the side of the road. Another senator found the corpse and brought it back to Fulvia.

Fulvia placed the wounded body on display in her atrium and publically mourned him, arousing much sympathy. Eventually, Clodius’s body was paraded, still naked, to the forum, rousing mob riots in the streets that burned down the Senate building while cremating Clodius within.  Milo was eventually put on trial, and Fulvia testified against him, moving many of the attendees with her speech and her tears. Milo was found guilty and exiled, and Fulvia remarried within the year.

Widowed Again

Her second husband, Gaius Scribonius Curio, found his political career significantly advanced by Fulvia’s influence. However, after only two years of marriage, Fulvia was again a widow. Curio died fighting for Julius Caesar in Africa. Fulvia’s next marriage reached even higher, to Mark Antony, Caesar’s right hand man. Fulvia remained highly active in supporting her husband politically.

The gangs that had surrounded her husband, Clodius, had transferred their allegiance to her, and she brought them to fight for Antony when he clashed with Publius Cornelius Dolabella in the Roman Forum. She and Antony both became fierce political rivals of Cicero, and Cicero targeted her in his speeches just like her husband. When Cicero tried to have Antony declared an enemy of Rome in his absence from the city, Fulvia’s campaigning helped to block the measure.

The Fourth Triumvir

After Caesar’s murder in 44 B.C., Antony and Fulvia seized wealth and power. Eventually, Antony formed the Second Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus, and Fulvia offered her daughter from her first marriage, Clodia, to Octavian in marriage to further seal the deal. Some historians have argued that Fulvia was an unofficial fourth member of the Triumvirate.

In the proscriptions that followed, Cassius Dio wrote that she “also caused the death of many, both to satisfy her enmity and to gain their wealth… When, however, the head of Cicero also was brought to them one day, Antony uttered many bitter reproaches against it and then ordered it to be exposed on the rostra more prominently than the rest… And Fulvia took the head into her hands before it was removed, and after abusing it spitefully and spitting upon it, set it on her knees, opened the mouth, and pulled out the tongue, which she pierced with the pins that she used for her hair, at the same time uttering many brutal jests.”

The Perusine War

By 41 B.C., Caesar’s murderers were dead, Antony was in Egypt with Cleopatra controlling the eastern half of the Roman Empire and Octavian was attempting to organize the western half from Rome. Yet their shaky alliance was crumbling, and back in Rome, Fulvia again took an ambitious step in political matters. With the partnership of Lucius Antonius, Antony’s brother, she gathered soldiers loyal to Antony and moved against Octavian. The Antonine forces even held Rome itself briefly, but withdrew when Octavian swept through Sentinum and continued on towards Rome. Octavian retook the capital without bloodshed, and Fulvia and Lucius retreated to Perusia.

The city occupied a strong strategic position, and the siege was a long and bloody one, only ending when Fulvia and Lucius were forced to surrender in the face of starvation. Octavian spared Fulvia and Lucius, only exiling them, but he dealt brutally with those under them. Three hundred soldiers and many of the junior senators who had declared in support of the Antonine party “were led to the altar consecrated to [Julius] Caesar and were there sacrificed.” Octavian executed the majority of the citizens of Perusia and put the city itself to flame. The old Etruscan walls were some of the only structures to survive. It was not until centuries later that Perusia returned to its former glory.

A Tame Resolution

Fulvia, meanwhile, rejoined her husband in Athens. He was reportedly furious with her over the events of the Perusine War. Nevertheless, she nearly convinced Antony to march on Rome and engage directly with Octavian, but became ill and passed away before she had fully won him over. In the absence of her influence, Octavian offered Antony a peace agreement and he accepted, prolonging the conflict over the rule of Rome for another decade.

What to See in Perusia now ?

Perugia is home to the Arch of Augustus, an Etruscan construction from the third century BC that is one of the earliest examples of use the rounded arch (perfected during later Roman architecture). One can also visit the National Archaeological Museum of Perugia (Piazza Giordano Bruno, 10) that showcases an array of artifacts, many of which were discovered in past archaeological digs in the area.  

Perusia on Timetravelrome App:

Sources: Plutarch, Life of Antony; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Cicero, Philippics; Asconius, On Cicero’s Pro Milone.

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Header image: PHRYGIA, Eumeneia. Circa 41-40 BC. Laureate female head (Fulvia ?) right / Athena standing left, holding shield and spear. Source: www.cngcoins.com. Used by permission of CNG.

– Emperor Augustus

Julia Augusti filia, or Julia the Elder, daughter of the Emperor Augustus, was a fascinating wild card in an era and culture where the ideal woman was quiet, steadfast, and even-tempered. Her personality was neither uniquely good nor bad, and like many famous individuals of the ancient world, reflected the innate complexities of human nature. She was kind, empathetic, intelligent, and quick-witted, while at the same time a wild partier, adulterer, and possibly even guilty of plotting patricide against a father who, despite his many flaws in parenting, loved her dearly.

Despite his devotion, accusations of her conspiracy finally forced Augustus to face all of her misdeeds. The charges would have meant execution of any other citizen, but unable to order the death of his daughter, Augustus instead exiled her to isolation in an ornate villa on the island of Pandataria. She remained under nominal house arrest until her own death, a short time after the passing of her father. Perhaps most captivating is how closely the difficult relationship between father and daughter and its results parallel modern situations, albeit amplified.

Young Julia

Augustus left his first wife, Scribonia, in 39 B.C., the very day that Julia was born, saying that he was “unable to put up with her shrewish disposition.” He took Julia away as soon as she could leave her mother, and Julia instead grew up in the house of her stepmother, Livia. She was raised in luxury and provided with the very best teachers, and subsequently she developed a deep love of literature and culture. She had a sharp mind and a quick tongue. Yet despite all the comforts of her childhood, it was also a strict and sheltered one. Augustus insisted that everything she said and did be proper, nothing that she would be ashamed to have written in the household records. He also carefully restricted their interaction with strangers. One of his letters includes an admonishment to Lucius Vinicius, “a young man of good position and character: “You have acted presumptuously in coming to Baiae to call on my daughter.”

She had been betrothed at the age of two to Mark Antony’s then ten year old son, though the later civil wars dissolved that arrangement. Still, her marriage was entirely at the will and needs of her father, and at fourteen she was wed for the first time to her cousin, Marcus Claudius Marcellus. Julia’s father was unable to attend the wedding, having fallen ill on a trip to the provinces, and instead he asked his right hand man, Marcus Agrippa, to oversee the ceremony. Marcellus was likely being groomed as a possible heir. Augustus’s only other possible successor, Agrippa, was the same age as the princeps, and a younger candidate was needed.

Many Marriages

Augustus undoubtedly also hoped that Marcellus and Julia would produce sons that he could then adopt, ensuring the future of their dynasty. Unfortunately, after only two years of marriage, Marcellus died childless. Two years later, Augustus married Julia, now eighteen years old, to Agrippa. Agrippa was around twenty-five years older than Julia, making the marriage a much more typical one than her match with Marcellus, who was very similar to her in age. Agrippa was also frequently away. Being Augustus’s top general, he was sent on campaigns in all corners of the provinces to maintain peace in the budding empire.

It was during this time that Julia began to act out. She apparently carried on several adulterous relationships, the longest of which was an affair with her “persistent paramour” Sempronius Gracchus. She is also said to have taken Iullus Antonius, second son of Mark Antony and brother of her first betrothed, as a lover, as well as lusting after Tiberius, her stepbrother. Despite her dalliances, she and Agrippa had five children together. Marcobius Theodosius recorded that on one occasion, when she was teased about the fact that it was surprising that all of her children looked like Agrippa, she quickly shot back ““I take on a passenger only when the ship’s hold is full.”

Julia even traveled extensively with Agrippa, who appears to have held affection for her despite their arranged marriage. He flew into a rage when Julia almost drown in Ilium, and laid a heavy fine on the citizens for carelessness. Only his good friend Herod had the nerve to approach him, and Agrippa listened to the plea and withdrew the fine.

Exiled to Pandataria

Shortly after returning to Italy, Julia once again became pregnant, and Agrippa fell desperately ill. He died at their villa in Campania. Julia named her son Marcus Agrippa Postumus in honor of his father. By this time, Augustus was becoming desperate for an heir. He had adopted Julia and Agrippa’s first two sons, Gaius and Lucius, but they were still quite young. Agrippa had returned to the position of expected heir after the death of Marcellus, and now he too was gone. Augustus was not a young man, and he needed an heir old enough to be able to run Rome. He quickly adopted his stepson Tiberius and immediately married Julia to him.

Despite her reported interest in Tiberius as a young girl, Julia and Tiberus’s marriage was a disaster from the outset. Tiberius had been deeply in love with his first wife, Vispania Agrippina, whom he was forced to divorce in order to marry Julia. He was also not impressed with Julia’s questionable sexual morality. Meanwhile Julia had barely finished mourning Agrippa, and considered Tiberius beneath her. They conceived one child who died as an infant and the couple separated soon after. According to the histories, Julia descended into even greater depravities at this point, and when her excesses were brought before Augustus, along with an accusation that she had joined a plot against him, he was finally forced to face the issue. Julia was banished to Pandataria, accompanied voluntarily by her mother.

Death of Julia

“After Julia was banished, he denied her the use of wine and every form of luxury, and would not allow any man, bond or free, to come near her without his permission, and then not without being informed of his stature, complexion, and even of any marks or scars upon his body.” It was not until five years later that Augustus allowed Julia to return to the mainland and to live in a villa at Rhegium. However, he could not be convinced to forgive her, despite the fact that the Roman people several times interceded on her behalf. Instead, he bitterly stated in the open assembly that if they continued to press for her release, then he “called upon the gods to curse them with like daughters and like wives.” Augustus wrote a clause into his will forbidding Julia to be buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus.

After Augustus’s death in August of 14 A.D., power passed to Tiberius. Practically at the same time as the princeps death, Agrippa Postumus was killed by a centurion named Gaius Sallustius Crispus, who then reported to Tiberius that “his orders were carried out.” Tiberius fiercely insisted that he had no involvement in the execution, yet his only real rival was now eliminated. Julia also did not survive to the end of the year. Tiberius refused to provide for her, and left her imprisoned in her villa to slowly die of destitution and possibly even starvation. 

What to See in Punta Eolo now ?

The Villa Giulia a Punta Eolo was the location on the island of Pandataria (now Ventotene) to which the emperor Augustus banished his daughter Julia the Elder in 2 B.C. Her abode on the island was a large and luxurious villa, complete with its own bath complex. It had been constructed originally as a summer residence for the emperor himself. The foundations of the villa have been excavated and the bath complex in particular is well preserved. The Museum of Ventotene also holds a number of artifacts excavated from the villa.

Julia was not the only high-ranking personage to be banished to the villa. Subsequently, in 29 AD, it accommodated Augustus’s granddaughter Agrippina after she was banished by Tiberius. She died there, allegedly starved to death, in 33 AD. Her son, the emperor Caligula, brought her remains reverently back to Rome and went on to exile his sister Julia Livilla to the villa. Julia Livilla was banished to Pandataria for a second time in 41 AD, this time on the orders of her uncle, the emperor Claudius. She too is said to have been starved to death here. Also incarcerated and then executed on Pandataria was Nero’s first wife, Claudia Ottavia.

Pandataria (Punta Eolo) on Timetravelrome App:

Sources: Cassius Dio, Roman History; Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Tacitus, The Annals; Pliny the Elder, Natural History; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History; Macrobius, Saturnalia.

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Header image: Ventotene (island), photo by Sailko licensed under CC BY 3.0

Virgil, Aeneid. Book VIII (translation by A.S. Kline)

Agrippa is one of the greatest men of Ancient Rome. His lifetime accomplishments were spectacular and his heritage is incredibly rich even two thousand years after his death. However, only a few Roman coins issued during his lifetime bear his portrait or name. This is due to the role that money played at the time of the Roman Empire. In addition to being a means of payment, coins were also a form of propaganda. As this centered around the person of Octavian, and later his family, other subjects or persons, with rare exceptions, had no place on Rome’s coins.

Yet numerous coins were dedicated to Agrippa or bear his name. Below are some of these coins, each linked to a relevant ancient roman place or monument.     

Crocodile on coins from Nîmes

The founding of Nîmes in southern Gaul goes back to the sixth century BC. At this time, Volcae Arecomici, a Celtic tribe, settled there around a spring and built a sanctuary. In 120 BC, the Volcae accepted the Roman legions without resistance, eventually giving birth to the town of Nemausa.

The development of the city surged during the imperial times when the city became a roman colony. After the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, marking the victory of Octavian and Agrippa over the fleets of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra, Octavian demobilized some of his legions and many veterans came to settle in Nîmes. The city changed status in 24 BC, becoming a Roman colony under the name of “Colonia Augusta Nemausus.” The very important minting that started from 27 BC shows the commercial dynamism of the city which became one of the richest in the region.

The famous dupondius struck in Nemausus starting in 27 BC depicts back-to-back heads of Augustus and Agrippa and legend IMP DIVI F on the obverse, and a crocodile chained to a palm, flanked by legend COL NEM, on the reverse. Agrippa and Augustus appear together on these coins because they were the patrons of Nîmes. Agrippa is also believed to be the architect of Nîmes’ main architectural features. On the reverse of the coin, the crocodile chained to a palm tree symbolizes Egypt’s submission to Rome.

The palm is an attribute of Apollo, the “patron” god of Octavian, a sanctuary in Apollo was also located opposite the site of the Battle of Actium. Many of these coins have also an abbreviation P.P. on them (as on the coin below – beside Augustus and Agrippa’s portraits). The abbreviation is believed to mean “Patronus Parentes” reflecting the role that Augustus and Agrippa jointly played in the prosperity of the colony. 

Dolphins on coins from Nicopolis

Besides Nîmes, numerous cities and towns in Italy, Spain, Greece, and throughout the East dedicated statues to Agrippa, selected him as patron, and bestowed honorary offices upon him (“Marcus Agrippa. A Biography”, Meyer Reinhold pp. 102-103).

One of such cities was Nikopolis (var: Nicopolis) in Epirus. Named as the “City of Victory,” Augustus founded Nikopolis to “extend the fame of his victory at Actium and to perpetrate its memory” (Suetonius, Aug. 18,2). The foundation of Nikopolis was not dictated solely by the desire to commemorate the victory. It also served a strategic purpose guarding the narrowest point of the peninsula which closes the Gulf of Arta.

Bronze coins minted there depict Agrippa’s bare head on the obverse, while the reverse shows a dolphin entwined around a trident. The reverse of the coin is a clear allusion to the naval victories of Agrippa at Actium. Sea-related symbols represent a recurring pattern in Agrippa heritage. The colossal statue in Venice shows Agrippa leaning on a dolphin and dolphins. Cockle-shells, and tridents decorated the friezes of his Baths in Rome. Agrippa even installed seven bronze dolphins to mark laps for the charioteers on the Circus Maximus.

Empty seat on Rostra

The Rostrum that can be seen today was installed on its current location by Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Then, around 29 BC, Augustus modified the structure. He extended the curved platform backwards to form a rectangle. Augustus also built a second rostrum in 29 BC in front of the Temple of Caesar. This structure also decorated with the prows of galleys captured during the great naval Battle of Actium. During this battle, Augustus’s fleet destroyed the forces of Marc Antony and Cleopatra. His victory cleared the way to his absolute power.

It is possible that coin below depicts this second rostrum as it then appeared. Indeed, this denarius was struck in 13 BC, after the second rostrum was built and only three prows can be seen here, while the “old” rostrum counted six. In addition, the coin is related to Agrippa, who was instrumental in the Actium victory. It is believed that the coin commemorates the renewal of Agrippa’s appointment as tribune (his first appointment was in the 18 BC) together with Augustus, but the whole series of coins struck in 13 BC suggests that the ambition was even broader: Agrippa was positioned on these coins as Octavian’s heir.   

Coins with the portrait of Augustus on one side and Agrippa on the other were produced in the year of 13 BC under supervision of the same moneyer, C. Sulpicius Platorinus. Augustus and Agrippa appear bare-headed. Some other rarer issues, including an aureus (header photo), depict Agrippa wearing a combined mural & rostral crown which Augustus gave him.

Agrippa was Augustus’s heir apparent and these coins emphasized his role. Unfortunately he died prematurely the year after. The coin struck in 12 BC – one year after previous ones – shows an unoccupied tribunal seat. This coin honors in a visual and emotional way the absence of the closest and most trustworthy friend of Octavian – Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa…

What to See in Nîmes now ?

Modern-day Nimes offers a remarkably rich array of ancient Roman architecture. The amphitheater near the heart of Nimes is one of the better preserved. It ranks as the seventh largest such structure from the ancient world. To the northwest of this theater, one will find the Maison Carée, a first-century temple originally dedicated to Augustus’ heirs Gaius and Lucius Caesar and recognized today as one of the best-preserved Roman temples outside of Rome itself. Those venturing out of the city can also find one of the best examples of ancient Roman engineering in the form of the aqueduct. The Pont du Gard, often associated with Nimes but situated roughly 30 kilometers away, has transversed the Gardon River since the first century CE. 

Nîmes on Timetravelrome App:

The app offers a description of all main Roman monuments that can be seen in today’s Nimes. They are located on the map and and a description is provided for each place.

Sources:

1/ « La formule P-P des as de Nemausus », Revue des Études Anciennes, 1940

2/ « Auguste et l’Asie Mineure », textes recueillis par Laurence Cavalier et autres. Ausonius Editions, 1997

3/ “The Coinage of Nicopolis”, Colin Kraay, The Numismatic Chronicle (1966-) Vol. 16, 1976.

4/ “Marcus Agrippa. A Biography”, Meyer Reinhold. Geneva, New York: The W. F. Humphreys Press, 1932.

Author: Timetravelrome

Header image: Aureus. Obv: Head of Augustus, wearing oak-wreath, right. Rev: Head of Agrippa, wearing combined mural and rostral crown, right. Moneyer: C Sulpicius Platorinus. Soirce: British Museum.

– Cassius Dio

Although ancient writers accepted the rumors that Augustus sent Agrippa away due to rising jealously between Agrippa and Marcellus, the nephew of Augustus, the long standing loyalty and esteem between the two men, from their earliest years together to the point of sharing a resting place, hardly seems to support that conclusion. In fact, it is far more reasonable to accept the modern speculation that Agrippa instead left Rome on an important, secret diplomatic mission. That the trust and affection between Augustus and Agrippa continued unchecked, even during Agrippa’s absence of Rome, can easily be seen in their actions, even as rumors claim otherwise.

Honoring Friends

Agrippa’s public projects in Rome were a great boon to the city, and constructed at his personal expense. Cassius Dio mentions that a number of important figures commissioned buildings in Rome, but often it was done ostentatiously, an attempt to bolster their own fame and glory with little thought to the structure’s overall use. In contrast, Agrippa consulted personally with Augustus to choose the projects that would most benefit Rome and its people. When completed, he did not “claim in the slightest degree a share in the glory of them, but used the honours which the emperor bestowed, not for personal gain or enjoyment, but for the benefit of the donor and of the public.”

In his design for the Pantheon, Agrippa greatly desired to name the structure after his good friend, and to place a statue of Augustus among those of the gods. Augustus diplomatically declined, and Agrippa finally agreed. Instead, he put a statue of Julius Caesar in the main chamber, and flanked the ante-room with a statue of Augustus and of himself. Cassius Dio again insists that “this was done, not out of any rivalry or ambition on Agrippa’s part to make himself equal to Augustus, but from his hearty loyalty to him and his constant zeal for the public good; hence Augustus, so far from censuring him for it, honoured him the more.” When Agrippa’s house on the Palatine Mount burned down, Augustus insisted that Agrippa move in with him and share his own extravagant home.

Powers of the Princeps

Where many rulers would fear to give a potential rival too much autonomy, particularly one as beloved by the people as Agrippa, Augustus lavishly bestowed authority to Agrippa, raising him to be the second most powerful man in Rome, and entrusted him with the highest of ceremonies. When Augustus fell ill just before the important marriage of his daughter Julia to his nephew, Marcellus, he asked Agrippa to hold the festival in his place. He pressed for a law which stated that whenever Agrippa was sent on business of the Republic, no-one held power greater than his.  In fact, Augustus eventually gave so much authority to Agrippa that Agrippa was effectively at the same level as the princeps. The only difference in their powers being that Augustus was granted tribunicia potestas for life, while that power was renewed every five years for Agrippa.

Agrippa had long been Augustus’s presumed heir. When the princeps had fallen desperately ill and was not expected to survive, he sorted his affairs in preparation for his death, and handed his ring to Agrippa. After the death of Marcellus, Augustus requested that Agrippa divorce his own wife and marry Julia, thus tying Agrippa even closer as his son-in-law. Agrippa agreed. However, having an heir that is the same age as his predecessor presents obvious disadvantages. As a result, when Julia gave birth to two sons, Gaius and Lucius, Augustus immediately adopted them and appointed them as his official heirs.

Missed Farewell

Agrippa remained Augustus’s steadfast general during this period, taking on campaigns in Sicily, Gaul, Spain, Syria, and Pannonia. He even settled unrest and riots in Rome while Augustus was away. In all these successes, he remained, according to all sources, humble and modest. He refused triumphs from Augustus on multiple occasions, and did not engage in the practice of sending boastful reports of his exploits back to Rome. It was on his return from the Pannonia campaign in 12 B.C. that disaster fell. Upon reaching the region of Campania, quite possibly in the villa at Boscoreale that later passed to his son, Agrippa Postumus, Agrippa became seriously ill. Messengers hurried to Athens, where Augustus was overseeing the prestigious Panathenaic Festival. Augustus immediately abandoned his duties overseeing the games and rushed to Campania, but he was too late to bid his friend farewell.

Devastated, Augustus brought Agrippa’s body back to Rome and insisted that he lie in state in the Forum. On the day of the funeral, he delivered the funeral oration himself, and arranged a procession that was very similar to his plans for his own funeral. Even though Agrippa owned a burial site in the Campus Martius, Augustus laid Agrippa’s body to rest in his own family mausoleum. He felt the loss for a long time, spending over a month in mourning and continuing to issue honors and memorials for his friend. Several coins depicting Agrippa were struck at this time, and Augustus named Julia’s third son after his deceased father.  He personally oversaw the education and upbringing of all of Agrippa’s children as if they were his own, though tragically he outlived both Gaius and Lucius.

Agrippa’s Legacy

Agrippa is remembered fondly by all of the ancient historians who wrote of him. He is lauded as a loyal subordinate to Augustus as well as being hugely beloved of the Roman people. In his will, he left his public buildings, baths, and gardens to the people of Rome, along with a generous endowment to ensure that his baths would remain free for use. He left most of his estates to Augustus, most of which the emperor turned over to the state, as well as giving out a gift, as requested by Agrippa, of four hundred sesterces* to each citizen.

Agrippa was a writer and a geographer. Among his works he left behind an autobiography, which sadly has yet to be found, and also a comprehensive chart of the Roman Empire, which Augustus had engraved in marble and placed on a colonnade. Agrippa is the one who established the official distance of a Roman foot, using his own foot size as the standard, and his name adorns the Via Agrippa, a network of roads throughout Gaul whose construction he commissioned.

He is remembered as having “used the friendship of Augustus with a view to the greatest advantage both of the emperor himself and of the commonwealth. For the more he surpassed others in excellence, the more inferior he kept himself of his own free will to the emperor; and while he devoted all the wisdom and valour he himself possessed to the highest interests of Augustus, he lavished all the honour and influence he received from him upon benefactions to others.” 

*Though calculating the value of the sesterce is a difficult proposition, and various valuations place it anywhere from 50 cents to 50 dollars, calculations based on relative labor rates suggest that one interpretation of the amount given in Agrippa’s will would equal about 200 US Dollars or 180 Euros.

What to See in Boscoreale now ?

The only villa you can visit today is the Villa Regina, completely restored in 1991. Though dating to the first century BC, the villa was expanded twice the following century, first during the Augustan Age then during the Julio-Claudian period. Unlike the other villas found in the area, Villa Regina was less a luxurious country retreat and more a well-furnished, comfortable working farm: as evidenced by the remains of a wine press, a subterranean wine cellar and vast amounts of pottery. Finds from the other villas, including the ornate Villa of Agrippa Postumus, are spread out across the Metropolitan Museum of New York, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum of Naples and the Louvre, just to name a few. Or, more locally, the Antiquarium of Boscoreale is home to some interesting artefacts and reproductions.

Boscoreale on Timetravelrome App:

Sources: Cassius Dio, Roman History; Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Tacitus, Annals

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Villa Regina, Boscoreale. Photo b Norbert Nagel . Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0

– Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews

In 23 B.C., a series of curious events took place. Despite their long and close friendship, Octavian, now known as Augustus, sent Agrippa away to govern the eastern province of Syria. It was an assignment that to some seemed tantamount to a gentle exile. Agrippa departed at once, but rather than proceeding to Syria, he sent his top lieutenant ahead while he stopped in Mytilene, staying there for almost two years and governing Syria by proxy. Was there some sort of tension between the two old friends? Or was Agrippa sent on a secret mission to Mytilene as a representative of his emperor?

Rumors of Contention

The Roman rumor mill was quick to make assumptions when Agrippa left the city. Augustus’s young nephew Marcellus had been climbing in his uncle’s esteem, with Augustus seeming to groom the young man as his heir. The gossips whispered that Agrippa and Marcellus were not on friendly terms, and that Augustus, fearing that harsh words would arise between them, sent Agrippa away. However, there are a number of inconsistencies and questions associated with this version of events. Both Tacitus and Suetonius say that Agrippa left of his own free will, possibly in an attempt not to obstruct the growth of Marcellus’s career, or possibly in jealousy that Augustus seemed to be showing preference to the young man over Agrippa.

The jealously theory cannot easily hold water. Agrippa had long been Augustus’s closest friend, yet never showed an interest in politically overtaking his friend. Additionally, the two men were the same age, and therefore Agrippa as heir was not a particularly safe choice for Rome. Historian Velleius Paterculus, the earliest historian to write of this, expressly names the rumors of contention as just that, mere rumors.  Recently, historians have begun to suspect that Agrippa was not exiled gently from Rome, but rather sent on a secret diplomatic mission under the pretext of conflict in the royal family. Josephus supports this theory, for he says nothing of the rumors, but rather claims that Agrippa was sent by Augustus to serve as the vice-regent of the eastern provinces, bearing proconsular power over the entire empire, making him effectively only subservient to Augustus himself.

The Mission at Mytilene

So that perhaps answers why Agrippa wasn’t sent to Mytilene, but still leaves the question as to what his secret mission might have been. It can only be answered with deductive speculation, but the timing of certain negotiations presents one possible answer. Two important Romans had made failed attempts to conquer the Parthians. Both Crassus and Antony suffered humiliating defeats in their campaigns, and the Parthians still held the spoils, and worse, the standards, of three Roman armies. The loss of a unit standard was a major disgrace for the Romans, both individually and collectively, and the empire chaffed to recover them.

However, a protracted war with the Parthians, who had already proved themselves to be dangerous enemies, was not something Augustus felt he could safely begin. He remained frustrated, unable to retrieve the standards, until a fortunate opportunity arose. A man named Tiridates had staged a successful coup against the Parthian king and taken the throne, only to be later expelled by the rightful king. In the chaos of the overthrow, Tiridates had managed to abduct the youngest son of King Phraates, and now he brought the boy to Augustus, offering him as a valuable hostage as a sign of goodwill. 

Here lies the possible answer to Agrippa’s mission. Augustus could hardly make the negotiation himself, for it would be a severe blow to his honor to be seen to be buying success. The perfect proxy was Agrippa, closest friend to the princeps, invested with extraordinary powers and dispatched to the east with numerous legates to run as messengers between his strategic, but still seemingly innocuous, base of operations at Mytilene and the Parthian court.

Meetings at Mytilene

Indeed, late in 23 B.C., Parthian envoys arrived in Rome to request the return of the king’s son and the surrender of Tiridates. Augustus would not hand over his guest, but he agreed to return the boy in exchange for the standards and Roman soldiers still held as prisoners of Parthia. All this time, Agrippa stayed quietly in Mytilene, ignoring the rumors of his dismissal and quietly serving as the ultimate right-hand man as he had always done.

 During his time on Mytilene, Agrippa was also cultivating yet another uniquely close friendship that would last his lifetime. Shortly after he settled on Mytilene, Herod the Great, King of Judea, came to call upon Agrippa and pay his respects. It is unclear whether the two had met previously, but may have encountered one another when Herod came before Augustus in 40 B.C. Now, visiting in the idyllic setting of Mytilene, the two men quickly developed a mutual respect and affection.

Though the sources do not record details of their interactions, it is not difficult to guess. Both men maintained a passion for building projects, and both had spent the last several years engaged in architectural projects and civic improvements. Herod was building a new city, named Sebaste, and had plans for work on Jerusalem and Caesarea. Herod returned from Mytilene with a number of ideas from Agrippa. Within a year he began a complete re-construction of the sewer system at Caesarea, and soon began the construction of Roman style aqueducts throughout Syria and Judea. The harbor that he built at Sebaste bears more than a passing resemblance to works done by Agrippa, such as the harbor of Portus Julius.

A Fast Friendship

Agrippa was recalled to Rome by Augustus in 21 B.C., and did not see Herod again for another six years. However, the friendship was solidly established. On one occasion, a group of representatives from the city of Gadara came to Agrippa to bring charges against Herod. Agrippa refused to even listen to them, and instead sent them to Herod in chains. He was also a staunch supporter of the rights of the Jewish client king and his subjects.

In 15 B.C., Herod invited Agrippa to join him in Judea, and he entertained his friend royally, as well as providing him with a personal tour of the kingdom, focusing on the building projects they had previously discussed and showing the many ways he had embraced Roman culture and structure. Agrippa was also shown the glory of Jerusalem, and observed the ceremonies at the Jewish Temple. He was greatly impressed, and responded with a gesture of his own, making a sacrifice to the god of Israel and providing a feast for the citizens, establishing himself firmly in their good graces as well.

The following year, when Agrippa was sent on an expedition to the Kimmerian Bosporos, Herod voluntarily joined him, surprising Agrippa, who was more than pleased to have him along. Herod served as Agrippa’s closest advisor and confidant on the campaign. They met one last time at Mytilene, when Herod entrusted Agrippa with taking his son to be educated in Rome. The friendship was definitely a genuine one, and had a lasting effect on Herod, for after the death of Agrippa, Herod renamed a city in his friend’s honor, and the name Agrippa was inserted into his family dynasty.

What to See in Mytilene now ?

The most notable archaeological remain to be seen in Mytilene is the ancient theatre. The almost perfectly circular orchestra indicates that this is one of the oldest theatres in Greece. It was believed, in antiquity, to have been so beautiful that this was the model upon which Pompey the Great based the theatre he built in Rome in the 1st century B.C., the first permanent theatre in Rome. Also of note are the remains of the Roman aqueduct. Smaller finds from the city may be seen at the Archaeological Museum, including the famous late Roman mosaic floor from the so-called “House of Menander”, which depicts scenes from the 4th century B.C. Athenian playwright.

Mytilene on Timetravelrome App:

Sources: Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews; Nicholas of Damascus, Autobiography; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Tacitus, Annals; Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History; David Magie Jr., “The Mission of Agrippa to the Orient in 23 B.C.,” in Classical Philology Vol. 3, No. 2 (Apr., 1908), pp. 145-152 – available on JSTOR.

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Mytilene castle by ProtecTOR licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

Though Agrippa’s works could not fix every issue with the city, his term as aedile was immensely successful, and he left the city in significantly better shape than he found it. In addition to cleaning and repairing the streets and sewers, which included the Cloaca Maxima, the largest sewer line of the city, Agrippa also commissioned and funded many public structures. Here are five of Agrippa’s top building projects as aedile of Rome.  Even though some of these buildings have left few remains to see today, they are still worth acknowledging in honor of the man that built them.

5. Baths of Agrippa

According to Cassius Dio, Agrippa first began work on the city’s first public hot water baths in 25 B.C., the same year that he started the Pantheon. The baths were adorned with beautiful statues and works of art. One that was of particular note was a wondrous statue, Lysippus’s Apoxyomenos. It stood outside the front of the bathing complex until Emperor Tiberius—who maintained a deep appreciation for the arts—loved the statue so much he had it moved to his bedroom, substituting the original with a copy. Such was the public’s indignation at this, however, that they staged a protest in one of the city’s theatres, forcing the reluctant emperor to return it.

The baths suffered damage during the reign of the Emperor Titus in the fire of 80 A.D., but it was not repaired until Hadrian’s rule some decades later. The last recorded restoration occurred under the joint reign of Constantius II and Constans in 345 A.D. All that remains of Agrippa’s magnificent 90 by 120 metre bath complex, which occupied the area between Corso Vittorio Emanuele and Via di Santa Chiara, is an imposing section of wall. This once made up the complex’s large semi-circular hall, which supported a large dome with a diameter of 23 metres. Made from brick, it doesn’t belong to Agrippa’s original baths of the first century BC but dates to a later, probably Severan restoration. An attempt to reconstruct the plan of then original Bath complex can be fund on the website of the American Academy in Rome.

4. Saepta Julia

Located in the Campus Martius next to the Pantheon, the Saepta were originally conceived by Julius Caesar to replace an older structure called the Ovile, where the comitia tributa gathered to cast votes. They were a huge four-sided portico built with marble covering an area of 310 x 210 meters and closed to the south by another building, the Diribitorium, where public officials counted the votes. The architectural complex was actually completed and dedicated to Augustus by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in 26 B.C.

The entrance, on the northern end, was aligned with those of the Pantheon to the left and of the Iseum to the right, where the Aqua Virgo aqueduct reached its destination. Because of the deep change underwent by the Republic after Augustus’ rise to power, the Saepta soon lost their political function becoming a marketplace and hosting gladiatorial games or venationes. In the walkways of the colonnades, famous paintings and statues were also displayed. The Saepta were damaged by a fire in 80 AD and then restored under Domitian and Hadrian. Today, just the brick foundations of the western side of the complex (the porticus Argonautorum) remain visible in “via della Minerva” next to the Pantheon.

3. Basilica of Neptune

Built in 25 B.C. to commemorate his and Augustus’s naval victories against Sextus Pompey and Mark Antony, the basilica stood between the Pantheon and (later) the Temple of Hadrian. The year after Vesuvius’s eruption, it fell victim to the fire of 80 AD—two successive disasters that nearly drove the incumbent emperor Titus to take his own life.

In its day, the Basilica of Neptune was a beautiful-looking building, furnished, Cassius Dio tells us, with a magnificent painting of the Argonauts. Today, all that remains of the basilica are the vague vestiges that protrude out of the brick wall behind the Pantheon. Stand on the Via della Palombela and you can see two of its Corinthian columns and a number of the basilica’s niches. Between the columns is the basilica’s main apse, and above the left column is a frieze on which—if you squint your eyes—you can just about make out the relief of two dolphins.

2. Aqua Julia

Built by Marcus Agrippa in 33 BC, the Aqua Iulia derived its name from the Julian lineage of his princeps and patron, Augustus. Agrippa implemented a remarkable constructional project aimed at revolutionising Rome’s water supply and modernising it so it was up to the standards of Augustus’s “city of marble.”  Agrippa’s Aqua Iulia shared its source (in Tusculum, near the Via Latina’s twelfth milestone at the Ponte degli Squarciarelli) with the Aqua Tepula. And it shared its course through the city of Rome with the Aqua Marcia. The Aqua Iulia ran for around 14 miles from its source to its main terminus near the Porta Viminalis.

The most impressive remains of the Aqua Iulia can be found at Porta Maggiore and Piazzale Labicano. Each of the three levels of the arched section shows the conduit of one of the aqueducts. Water from the Aqua Marcia (144 BC) flowed along the bottom; water from the Aqua Tepua (125 BC) flowed along the middle; and water from the Aqua Iulia flowed along the top. It made sense: because the water travelled the same course it was simpler to reuse the arches of the original Aqua Marcia.

1. The Pantheon

The original Pantheon was built by Marcus Agrippa, sometime after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Even in antiquity there was some controversy around its name. Literally meaning, “honour all gods” in Greek (παν θεον), we know that Agrippa’s building did indeed display the statues of many gods, including those of Mars and Venus. However, the third century historian Cassius Dio also suggests that it could have been given its name because the temple’s iconic vaulted roof resembled the heavens.

The Pantheon’s attribution to Agrippa is misleading though. Despite the inscription that greets you on the front of the temple—M[arcus] Agrippa L[ucii] f[ilius] co[n]s[ul] tertium fecit (Marcus Agrippa built this)—what stands today is not the original Pantheon. Agrippa’s Pantheon was destroyed in the fire of 80 AD (some 37 years before Hadrian ascended to the throne) and anything that survives is most likely subsumed within the current building. Hadrian rebuilt it, but chose to play modest and kept the old inscription. The emperor famously executed the Pantheon’s Greek architect, Apollodorus of Damascus, over an argument about the structure.

The exterior façade and vaulted ceiling are the only relics of the Pantheon’s ancient past. That said, having mysteriously survived the barbarian raids that proved lethal for the city’s other architectural legacy, the Pantheon is Ancient Rome’s best-preserved monument. The Christians transformed it into a Church in 609 and it still functions as one: St Mary of the Martyrs. It’s the final resting place of Italian kings, poets and the artist Raphael, and 2,000 years after its construction the Pantheon can still claim to have the world’s largest unsupported Dome.

Agrippa buildings on Timetravelrome App:

All buildings described above are precisely mapped by the Timetravelrome app on the map of Rome, alongside 190 other Roman monuments. Each monument is provided with an up-to-date description.

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Il Pantheon di sera by Alessio Nastro Siniscalchi. Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.5 it.

Trapped in Greece

Antony had been enjoying his rule and his lavish lifestyle from the ancient city of Alexandria in Egypt. He had also been enjoying the attentions of Cleopatra, Egypt’s queen, despite his previous marriage to Octavian’s sister. Octavian used Antony’s dalliances to great advantage back in Rome, vilifying Antony for his unfaithfulness. It helped his cause even further that Octavia remained the picture of a noble Roman wife, devotedly caring for her and Antony’s children even as Antony made plans to divorce her and marry his Egyptian queen. Antony’s devotion to Cleopatra proved much of his undoing. Octavian was able to convince most of the Senate that Antony intended to undermine the power of Rome and hand control to foreigners in the East.

As conflict became inevitable, Antony and Cleopatra moved their forces to Greece, positioning the main strength of their navy in the port of Actium. Moving quickly, Octavian moved his forces by ship across the Adriatic Sea to attack Antony in Greece. Landing much of the army north of Actium, Octavian led his soldiers to cut off Antony and Cleopatra’s escape route by land. Meanwhile, Agrippa, commanding the navy, blockaded the port and cut off the supply lines. As the siege continued and Antony’s position grew worse, his soldiers deserted him in large numbers to Octavian. Eventually Cleopatra, who commanded her own ships in Antony’s fleet, convinced Antony and his generals that they should abandon the fortified positions in Greece and escape by boat back to Egypt. From there, they could launch a much stronger defense.

Escape from Actium

Octavian learned of their plan from deserters of Antony’s camp. As a result, he believed that he should allow Antony and Cleopatra to slip past but prepare to attack them from behind. This way, when he proved to their men that they intended to flee, he hoped to win over the soldiers to his cause with little fighting and bloodshed. However, he capitulated to the advice of Agrippa, who knew the ships better and feared that if Antony and Cleopatra came past in their lightest ships, the slower Roman vessels would not be able to catch them. As a result, Octavian prepared his vessels for a full confrontation. Soon after, Antony and Cleopatra led their fleet out of the port at Actium. However, they made no attempt to engage until Octavian and Agrippa moved to surround them. Forced reluctantly into battle, they advanced to meet their enemies.

“[Octavian’s] followers, having smaller and swifter ships, would dash forward and ram the enemy, being armoured on all sides to avoid receiving damage. If they sank a vessel, well and good; if not, they would back water before coming to grips, and would either ram the same vessels suddenly again, or would let those go and turn their attention to others…The enemy, on the other hand, tried to hit the approaching ships with dense showers of stones and arrows, and to cast iron grapnels upon their assailants. And in case they could reach them they got the better of it, but if they missed, their own boats would be pierced and would sink, or else in their endeavour to avoid this calamity they would waste time and lay themselves more open to attack by other ships.”

Flight and Defeat

In this way, the battle continued indecisive for a long while. Eventually, a sudden decision by Cleopatra began to turn the tide. Hoping for an escape, and with the wind turning favorably for them to sail toward Egypt, she unexpectedly turned her flagship from the battle and signaled for her followers to do the same. Thinking that they were running because they thought the battle lost, Antony also turned and fled. His remaining vessels grew confused and disheartened, and made to raise their sails and follow. Yet while they made these preparations, Octavian and Agrippa attacked, and the close quarters fighting turned brutal and bitter. When the battle still remained undecided, Octavian’s forces reluctantly turned to their final resort. Sending flaming arrows and missiles onto the enemy ships, they set them ablaze. 

“When the fire spread, the most terrible of fates came upon them. Some, and particularly the sailors, perished by the smoke before the flame so much as approached them, while others were roasted in the midst of it as though in ovens. Others were consumed in their armour when it became heated.  There were still others, who, before they should suffer such a death, or when they were half-burned, threw off their armour and were wounded by the shots which came from a distance, or again leaped into the sea and were drowned, or were struck by their opponents and sank. Those alone found a death that was tolerable, considering the sufferings which prevailed, who were killed by their fellows in return for the same service, or else killed themselves, before any such fate could befall them; for they not only had no tortures to endure.”

Founding of Nicopolis

Knowing they would not be able to catch the fleeing Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian and Agrippa made no immediate move to do so. Instead, they first celebrated their victory, establishing a festival in honor of the battle and also founding the city of Nicopolis on the site where Octavian had made his camp. The city prospered as a successful center for commerce and eventually became the capital of the Roman province of Epirus Vetus under Emperor Trajan. Nicopolis took damage from an earthquake in 375 B.C., and then at the hands of maurading Goths, Huns, and Vandals. It was restored by Emperor Justinian in the mid-6^th century, but eventually lost its economic pre-eminence to the city of Preveza in the Middle Ages.

What to See Here:

Modern visitors can enjoy a a wealth of archaeological remains of ancient Nicopolis. The site is referred to as Palaea Preveza (Old Preveza). It is bounded by the remains of the defensive fortifications. They are a combination of the original Augustan structures and the Justinianic rebuilds. To the west, there is an Odeion, the impressive remains of the city’s Hadrianic aqueduct, and a bath building. There are also the remains of the stadium which was the venue for the famous Actian Games. These are the games that the Emperor Nero was so victorious in during his tour of the Hellenistic provinces in the mid-1st century A.D. The remains of the villa of Manius Antoninus are notable for the splendour of the mosaics that have survived. The nearby Archaeological Museum of Nicopolis is rich in the finds from the site and worth a visit.

Nikopolis on Timetravelrome App:

Sources:  Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Cassius Dio, Roman History.

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Battle of Actium, a painting by Lorenzo A. Castro, now in Royal Museums Greenwich. The image is in the public domain.

Desperate Taxation

On the fateful Ides of March in 44 B.C., Julius Caesar lay dead, assassinated by fellow Senators. Unfortunately, the conspirators had given little thought to their next moves after the murder. Caesar’s friends and family were able to arouse the people in sympathy. They turned the Republic against the very men who proclaimed they had saved it. Mark Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus joined together to form the Second Triumvirate and take charge of Rome. Together, they waged a long war against the assassins of Caesar. By 46 B.C. they were drowning under the overwhelming expenses of the protracted campaign.

Their solution was not a popular one. Following in the footsteps of the dictator Sulla, they began mass proscriptions. They condemned numerous men to death as traitors, and confiscated their means and property. It was a tumultuous time of shifting allegiances, but many of those proscribed were suspiciously wealthy, and their crimes against the state rather nebulous and unspecified. The proscriptions brought significant money into the war fund, but not as much as the triumvirate had hoped. They next instituted a tax on 1400 of the richest women in Rome. The women chosen had to make a full valuation of all of their property, and the triumvirs would name the amount required from each woman. Any that attempted to hide assets must pay fines to the informants that had betrayed them.

Hortensia the Orator

Many women gathered in protest, and considered it most appropriate to appeal to the women of the three triumvirs. They obtained audience with Octavia, Octavian’s beloved sister, and also with Antony’s mother. Both were kind and allowed them to speak their concerns. When they approached Fulvia, Antony’s wife, she refused to see them, and sent them away with unbelievable rudeness. Frustrated and upset, they took advantage of an old law allowing women to speak publically in times of war, and forced their way into the forum to openly address the three triumvirs themselves. 

The woman they had elected to speak on their behalf was Hortensia. She was the daughter of Quintus Hortensius, a wealthy and well-educated man who was well-known as a great orator. In fact, he was the principal rival to the famous Cicero himself. With such a father, it is unsurprising that Hortensia also possessed a gift with words. Her father taught her Greek and Latin literature from a very young age. As she grew older, she concentrated her studies on rhetoric and oration as her father had. She was married and had one daughter, but after her husband’s death in 67 B.C., she returned her focus to the study of oration. 

Speech Before the Magistrates

On that day in 42 B.C., she stood bravely in the forum and rebuked the three triumvirs. “You have already deprived us of our fathers, our sons, our husbands, and our brothers, whom you accused of having wronged you; if you take away our property also, you reduce us to a condition unbecoming our birth, our manners, our sex. If we have done you wrong, as you say our husbands have, proscribe us as you do them… But why do we share the penalty when we did not share the guilt? “Why should we pay taxes when we have no part in the honours, the commands, the state-craft, for which you contend against each other with such harmful results?” 

The triumvirs initially responded angrily, and demanded that their lictors drive the women from the Forum. Yet the crowds in the Forum Romanum, impressed by Hortensia’s speech, raised a protest. The triumvirs cooled their tempers, and said they would consider the matter and return a decision the following day. They did indeed concede the issue to a degree, reducing the number of women required to pay the tax from 1400 to 400, and also instituting a tax on all men of a certain level of wealth. 

The angry crowd may have influenced their backpedaling, but it is likely that the triumvirs also gave thought to Hortensia’s articulate argument. Contemporary men of learning praised her speech, style, and skill. Valerius Maximus wrote that the great Quintus Hortensius lived again through the words of his daughter. Hortensia was one of only three women ever recorded to have spoken publically before the magistrates of Rome. Her courage and intelligence that day won her a small victory against the powerful 2^nd triumvirate. 

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Photo: Forum Romanum Rom by Stefan Bauer, http://www.ferras.at is licensed under  CC BY-SA 2.5

Sources: Appian, Civil Wars; Valerius Maximus, Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilia.

What to See Here?

Along with the Colosseum (and perhaps the Pantheon), the Roman Forum is the site most representative of ancient Rome. It is home to temples, triumphal arches, religious sites, and civic structures. Structures date all the way back from the archaic and regal periods (with monuments such as the Regia and the Niger Lapis) and right up to the early seventh century AD (with the Forum’s last addition, the Column of Phocas). In the Roman Forum, the problem is not what to see but what you have time to see. From the Arch of Titus that greets you at the top of the Via Sacra right through to the Arch of Septimius Severus that stands near the slopes of the Capitoline, archaeological treasures litter the area. That said, many of its older (and often more interesting) monuments are ruined almost beyond recognition.

In terms of physical remains, the most impressive monuments in the Roman Forum are the third century Curia Julia and Arch of Septimius Severus, the skeletal structure of the temples of Vespasian and Saturn, and the enigmatic yet intriguing site of the Temple of Vesta and House of the Vestals. The key to the Roman Forum is to read and to explore, and to take the time to understand what it is you’re looking at—at least as best as possible, given the often-flimsy nature of the evidence. Do this, and you’ll find something amongst its ancient ruins that brings the glory of ancient Rome to life. 

To find out more: Timetravelrome.