Our friend and TimeTravel Rome author Michel Gybels has been involved in this collaborative effort since its launch – you might remember our post about the project kickoff one year ago. Now, we’re excited to share the key achievements from their research, highlighted in the report called “The Roman North Sea Region – A Resource Assessment and Research Questions“, released in December 2024. More information can be found on the website of the project: https://bridgingthenorthsea.org

Header page of the Report, Dec 2024

Project Scope: A Network Across the Waters

The project looked at how the Roman Empire used the North Sea and Channel coastlines to create an interconnected world of trade, military power, and cultural exchange. The research covers roughly 55 BCE (when Julius Caesar first crossed to Britain) to around 410 CE (when Roman rule in Britain ended).

What’s different about this project is its cross-border approach. Instead of studying these coastal regions separately, researchers have combined their knowledge to see how sites across four modern countries once functioned as parts of a single, complex maritime network. Some of the key highlights of this unique work are summarized below.

The Roman Coastal Landscape

The coastline during Roman times was dramatically different from today. In many places, what is now dry land was once open water, while other areas now underwater were once thriving settlements.

For instance, the Wantsum Channel in Kent once separated the Isle of Thanet from mainland Britain, creating a navigable waterway that Roman ships used regularly. Archaeological evidence shows that Richborough, at the southern end of this channel, served as a major port of entry and supply base. Today, this ancient seaway lies buried beneath agricultural fields, its course marked by earthen sea walls and drainage channels.

The Wantsum Channel at time of the Romans. P 135 of the Report, Dec 2024.

Similarly, in what is now Flanders, the coastline has retreated significantly. The Roman coastal fort of Oudenburg, which once overlooked the sea, now sits over 8 kilometers inland. This dramatic change highlights how dynamic these coastal environments were and the challenges they posed to Roman engineers and sailors.

Schematic reconstruction of the coastal plain during the mid-Roman period. Red line: the current coastline; black line: border of the coastal plain in the Roman period. P 20 of the Report, Dec 2024.

Military Infrastructure

The project has documented a network of forts, harbors, and lighthouses that allowed Rome to maintain control over this maritime frontier. These installations weren’t randomly placed but formed a coherent defensive and logistical system.

Confirmed and possible Roman military installations along the coast of the Netherlands, Belgium and France. P 37 of the Report, Dec 2024.

At Dover (Portus Dubris), traces of harbor works, two lighthouses, and a fort of the Classis Britannica (British Fleet) reveal how the Romans engineered this natural harbor for military and trade purposes. Across the water at Boulogne-sur-Mer (Gesoriacum), a similar arrangement with lighthouses and a substantial harbor installation mirrors the setup at Dover, emphasizing the importance of the Dover Strait crossing.

Dover Castle and the Roman Lighthouse, By Michael Coppins – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Further north, at South Shields (Arbeia) near the mouth of the River Tyne, a fort was specially redesigned around 198 CE to serve as a supply base for Hadrian’s Wall, with numerous granaries for storing goods delivered by sea. The project has highlighted how these coastal installations were integral to the functioning of Hadrian’s Wall, connecting this frontier to the wider imperial supply network.

Material Culture: The Goods That Moved

Perhaps the most tangible evidence of connectivity comes from the artifacts that were transported across the North Sea. The project’s analysis of material culture has revealed shifting patterns of exchange that reflect broader historical developments.

During the early Roman period (43-165 CE), large quantities of pottery, especially terra sigillata tableware from southern Gaul, were imported into Britain. Metal goods, coins, olive oil in amphorae, and wine also crossed the Channel in considerable volumes. The Pudding Pan Rock site off the Kent coast, where hundreds of pottery vessels have been recovered from what may be multiple shipwrecks, exemplifies this busy trade.

Group of Roman samian ware pottery from Pudding Pan Rock. Source: Ashmolean Museum.

Interestingly, the research shows that the volume of cross-Channel exchange declined significantly after the mid-2nd century, possibly due to the combined effects of the Antonine Plague (165-180 CE) and the Marcomannic Wars that destabilized parts of the empire. At the same time, however, there was an increase in Roman goods moving into the northern Netherlands, suggesting that imperial subsidies paid to Germanic tribes were reshaping trade networks.

By the late Roman period (260-409 CE), the nature of cross-Channel exchange had fundamentally changed. Britain was exporting agricultural products to supply the Rhine legions, while importing far fewer manufactured goods. This shift from a consumer to a producer reflects the evolving economic role of Britain within the empire.

The Human Factor: Travelers Across the Sea

Beyond the infrastructure and artifacts, the project has begun to identify individuals who traveled across the North Sea, putting human faces to this maritime connectivity. Inscriptions, tombstones, and written records preserve the names of merchants, soldiers, officials, and others who made these journeys.

One notable example is L. Viducius Placidus, a merchant from the Rouen area in France, who is known from inscriptions both at Domburg in the Netherlands and at York in Britain, where he constructed an arch and temple. Such evidence demonstrates that individual businesspeople could operate across multiple provinces, maintaining networks that spanned the North Sea.

Dedicatory inscription made in York by Lucius Viducius Placidus. Source: https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/3195

Military personnel were also frequently on the move. A tombstone at South Shields commemorates Regina, a British woman who had married Barates, a merchant from Palmyra in Syria. Another records Victor, a Moorish tribesman who had traveled from North Africa to serve in the Roman forces in northern Britain.

These personal stories bring to life the cosmopolitan nature of the Roman North Sea world, where people from across the empire might meet and interact in bustling ports and frontier settlements.

A Landscape Under Threat

Many Roman coastal sites are now threatened by modern coastal processes and climate change. At East Wear Bay in Folkestone, a Roman villa site continues to erode as the cliff face retreats. At Reculver on the north Kent coast, much of the Roman fort has already been lost to the sea.

The Roman villa at East Wear Bay in the 1940s. The yellow line represents the current cliff edge which is progressing northwards. P 141 of the Report, Dec 2024.

In the Medway estuary, Roman industrial sites on low-lying islands are being submerged as sea levels rise, while in the Netherlands, several coastal forts have entirely disappeared beneath the waves due to coastal erosion. The project is highlighting the urgent need to document these vulnerable sites before they are lost forever.

Looking Forward: Future Research Directions

As the “Bridging the North Sea” project moves into its second year, several key research priorities have emerged:

1. Developing better mapping of Roman coastal landscapes: Creating GIS-based maps that can evolve as understanding improves
2. Synthesizing fragmented research: Bringing together the results of numerous small-scale investigations to build a comprehensive picture
3. Fostering cross-disciplinary collaboration: Working with geologists, climate scientists, and maritime specialists to understand the ancient North Sea environment
4. Sharing methodologies: Developing approaches to investigate difficult-to-access Roman landscapes that lie buried or submerged
5. Building international collaboration: Strengthening networks across the North Sea to address shared research questions

One interesting proposal is for a “flagship” experimental archaeology project that would involve constructing a Roman-era vessel, potentially with teams working on different sides of the North Sea. Such a project could provide valuable insights into the capabilities of Roman ships while engaging the public across the region.

The Untold Stories of Industry: Salt, Pottery, and More

One area that deserves more attention is the industrial activities that took place along these Roman coastlines. The project has begun to document how the Romans exploited coastal resources to fuel their economy, particularly in industries like salt production and pottery manufacturing.

In Kent, over 60 Roman salt-manufacturing sites have been identified, particularly concentrated in the north and north-west of the county. These salt works were strategically positioned to take advantage of tidal flows and sea access for transportation. The production process involved evaporating seawater in large clay containers (briquetage) over hearths, creating mounds of industrial waste that are still visible in some marshland areas.

Similarly, the project has identified more than 50 pottery manufacturing sites in Kent, many located in the north Kent marshes where they could benefit from both the necessary raw materials and easy access to water transport. Black Burnished Ware, produced in large quantities along both sides of the Thames Estuary from the mid-2nd to mid-3rd century, represents one of the major pottery industries. These vessels were widely distributed, including to Hadrian’s Wall, suggesting they may have been used to transport salt or other goods.

Map of Roman Kent showing the location of key sites. P.16 of the Report, Dec 2024.

In Flanders, salt-making was also of considerable economic importance during the Roman period. Finds of briquetage pottery indicate that salt was being produced at several locations spread throughout the coastal plain, always near active tidal inlets. Recent research has shown that the salt industry evolved from small-scale household production to a more industrial scale operation using batteries of up to 15 simultaneously operating furnaces.

The economic networks that supported these industries were complex. Salt was a valuable commodity, essential for food preservation and likely traded widely. Pottery production sites like those at East Chalk near Gravesend seem to have been entire settlements dedicated to manufacturing, with multiple kilns operating alongside domestic structures and small cemeteries.

These industrial landscapes represent an important aspect of North Sea connectivity. The products made in these coastal workshops traveled far and wide through Roman trading networks, while the technologies and skills needed for these industries may have crossed the sea with specialist workers. Studying these industries gives us a different perspective on connectivity – not just of elites and military forces, but of everyday economic life and the movement of essential commodities.

A Connected Past, A Connected Future

The “Bridging the North Sea” project reminds us that the divisions between countries that seem so natural today are relatively recent constructs. For the Romans, the North Sea was not a barrier but a highway that connected regions now split between four modern nations.

By studying this shared maritime heritage collaboratively, the project is not only enhancing our understanding of the past but also strengthening international connections in the present. As research continues, we can expect even more insights into how the Roman Empire created one of the first truly integrated North Sea regions, establishing patterns of connectivity that, in many ways, continue to shape the area today.

This ancient maritime network, with its ports, forts, ships, and travelers, represents an important chapter in the history of North Sea connectivity—one that resonates with our modern world of international trade and cross-border collaboration.

Source of the featured image: Artist’s impression: the port of Boulogne and the estuary in the 2nd century Cl. Seillier and P. Knoblock (2004) – archives of the archaeology service. Page 158 of the Report.

The open spaces and accessible ruins make Ostia Antica a wonderful day trip for families. Winding cobble paths lead tourists on an intimate journey throughout the beautifully preserved city. Visitors can freely explore the houses and commercial area. Very few of the buildings are roped off (only when structural safety is a concern) giving a real sense of discovery and connection with the people who once lived and worked in the ancient city. 

Unlike the more popular Pompeii and Herculaneum, visitors to Ostia won’t have to fight the crowds. There’s plenty of space to run, walk, and sit on your journey through the city – strolling the Decumanus Maximus, visiting the baths and market area, taking a seat in the ancient theatre, walking room to room along residential streets, stepping through doorways, peering up the ancient stairs that lead to the upper apartments. Every step uncovers something new that makes you reconsider what life was like for the people of ancient Ostia. 

Ostia’s Ancient Beginnings

The salt flats along the Tiber River attracted a small settlement from as early as the Bronze Age, around 1400 BC. Ancient authors confirm that Roman Ostia was founded by the fourth king of Rome, Ancus Marcius, in 620 BC with its name deriving from the Latin word “ostium”, meaning “river mouth”. All that remains from this early period are traces of an ancient road, known as the Via della Foce (“Road of the Mouth”). The road led south-east from the mouth of the Tiber and its continued use created the irregular forked arrangement of the Imperial-era city grid.

During the 4^th century, a military camp, known as a castrum, was established near what would later be the Forum. The rectangular fortress was built with walls of large tufa blocks, it measured 194 x 125.7 metres overall with four main gates. The main streets were laid out in the typical Roman fashion of Cardo and Decumanus. The town soon supported a military harbour and was used as a naval base and a seat of the quaestores classici. The city prospered as a major commercial port during the late Republic during which it was an important trade centre supplying Rome with grain and exotic goods from Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. At the height of prosperity during the 2^nd and 3^rd centuries, several Roman emperors sponsored large construction projects in the city. However, as shipping activities moved from Ostia to Portus during the middle of the 3^rd century, Ostia began to decline. It was eventually abandoned in the 6^th century AD and left to be covered by silt and sand from the Tiber River flood waters.

Following discoveries at the site during the nineteenth century, excavations began in the 1880’s and continue today. The entire city has not yet been revealed. As it is, Ostia Antica is a hugely sprawling port town with visible ruins covering over 170 acres (69 hectares) from the necropolis along the Via Ostiens, along the main Decumanus and its network of minor streets, and leading eventually to the modern Tiber with the remains of luxurious mansions along its bank. For the determined visitor, it would take an entire day (or two) to truly do the site justice. For most visitors, several hours spent exploring the heart of the city is enough. 

A Glimpse at Life in Roman Ostia

Walking the ancient streets reveals a working city alive with taverns, baths, shops, and guild centres. Much of the graffiti, wall paintings, and mosaics are focused on shipping and trade. The bustling city serviced a hardy population of soldiers, wagon-drivers, sailors, naviculari (shipmasters), and traders. 

Juvenal’s Satire 8, which takes a humorous look at the paradoxes of aristocratic conduct, suggests that Ostia was well known for its taverns. 

“Send your general to Ostia, O Caesar! But search for him in some great tavern. There you will find him reclining cheek-by-jowl with some common cut-throat, in the company of sailors, and thieves, and runaway slaves, among executioners and cheap coffin-makers, or of some eunuch priest lying drunk with idle timbrels.”

There are some eighty tabernae or popinae (small taverns and food bars) identified in Ostia. They are often on street corners where busy residents could grab a meal and a drink on their way to or from work, or while visiting the baths. Their style is completely different to those seen at Pompeii. In Ostia, the food counters often block the doorways with a prominent water fountain alongside. Guests would sit outside in the street on wooden benches. Only the largest taverns offered a room or garden with indoor seating. A shelf for drinking vessels and wine was built on the wall within easy reach of the shopkeeper to quickly serve passers-by. In many of the ancient bars, the counters, water basins, and the lead pipes used to supply their water can still be seen. Grinding mortars and foci for cooking show that some taverns served spiced wine or prepared meals. 

From this many tabernae, it’s just a few steps to the entrance of some lavish bath or to the side streets with their multi-storey apartments. There are taverns alongside the fish market, the grain warehouse, theatre, next door to millers, fullonicae, bakeries, and hotels. At every turn, visitors to Ostia Antica see evidence of the everyday activities and daily life of the ancient residents. It’s this accessibility that makes Ostia one of the most evocative ancient Roman sites in Italy. 

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Bibliography

Boin, Douglas. Ostia in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Hermansen, Gustav. Ostia: Aspects of Roman City Life. University of Alberta, 1981.

Juvenal, Satires, Satire VIII 173.

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Michelle Richards.

A rostrum was not a mere platform or podium for the talkers, but a true symbol of the Roman state. Here ordinary Romans found contact with their institutions and leaders. It was the place from which the voice of Rome was heard by its People.

One thousand years of history 

Rostra have a very long history. The first Rostrum was constructed in Rome in the 6th century BC. It was rebuilt and enlarged over centuries but remained at the same site. Here Romans would give speeches, deliver eulogies, and present emperors (dead or alive) to the crowds. 

The name “rostra” is more recent than the first construction. They have only been called like this since 338 BC, after the end of the Latin Wars which ravaged Italy. A consul, Gaius Maenius, seized the ships of Rome’s enemies, cut off their rams (or prows) – called rostra in Latin – and placed six of them upon the speakers’ podium. Rostra became symbols of Rome’s glorious past. 

What is shown on this coin? The reverse of the coin depicts a rostrum and a subsellium – the seat of Tribune. The seat should not be confused with sella curulis, dedicated to curule offices, or the highest ranks in Rome. The reverse is likely to be dedicated to moneyer’s father who was tribune in 71 BC. He was instrumental in returning powers to the tribunes, which had been removed by Sulla. Note that the rostrum still has its original circular form. 

Symbol of power

Julius Caesar moved the rostrum of Rome from its original position near the Comitium and Curia to its present site in 44 BC. It was dedicated by his right-hand man and most ambitious general, Mark Antony. In around 29 BC, Caesar’s heir, Augustus, sworn enemy of the, now late, Mark Antony , modified the structure. He extended the curved platform backwards to form a rectangle. 

Further modifications, columns and monuments were added to rostrum under the Flavians, the Severans and fifth-century Tetrarchy. 

In 29 BC Augustus built a second rostrum in front of the Temple of Caesar. The structure was also decorated with the prows of galleys. They came from ships captured during the great naval Battle of Actium. During this battle, Augustus’s fleet destroyed the forces of Marc Antony and Cleopatra. His victory cleared the way to his absolute power. Unfortunately, we have no traces of this second rostrum.

It is a pure speculation, but the coin below may depict the second rostrum as it then appeared. It was struck in 13 BC, after the second rostrum was built by Augustus. And only three prows can be seen here, while the “old” rostra counted six. The coin probably commemorates the renewal of Augustus’ friend Agrippa’s appointment as tribune. Unfortunately, he died prematurely the year after this coin was issued. 

What is to see there now? 

The Rostra Augusti are very much shells of their former selves. For millennia, they have been stripped of the very “rostra”—or ships’ rams – which gave them their name. However, the recesses into which these oars were inserted are still visible. Also, one can see the set of stairs of Caesar’s original structure on the western side. But even without its former imperial splendor, the remains of the rostra on the Forum are still a must-see: they played a pivotal role in some of the most important moments in Roman history.

Authors: Alexander Meddings with contributions and additional edits from TTR. 

Early Work

The very first digging occurred shortly after the disaster that buried the city. Residents who had escaped returned and dug into their villas for precious items. Some profiteers also tunneled into the city, seeking articles to sell. However, the dangers put them off. Unstable tunnels often collapsed, and pockets of poisonous gas killed some unwary visitors. After an initial return, Romans forgot the city, and it passed into legend for centuries.

Architect Domenico Fontana stumbled on the city again between 1594 and 1600 A.D., when was digging a water route. He found two ancient inscriptions, and upon further search, several frescoes. He had little interest, however, and covered them back up. Then, in 1709, local monks digging a new well stumbled upon some relics. Prince d’Elbeuf, an eager collector of ancient items, bought the land, which proved to be the city of Herculaneum. Sadly, his workers dug at random, causing great damage and removing statues and artwork. 

Official excavations began in 1738 under the oversight of Spanish engineer Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre. The finding of Pompeii nearby shifted attention away from the seaside resort and back to the major city. Yet poor techniques in the 18^th and 19^th centuries caused damage and allowed large scale decline in coming years.

Rebuilding Begins

The first organized scientific work in Pompeii began in 1863 under the direction of Giuseppe Fiorelli. Rather than jumping from one promising location to the next, his crew dug layer by layer, street by street. He left most items in situ, an kept detailed notes. He also realized that cavities remained where the ash had buried its victims. Using plaster poured into the cavity, they were able to preserve the final moments of many people. The process still bears his name, though now uses a clear resin that causes less damage. The plaster casts are iconic symbols of Pompeii, capturing the horror of its final days and humanizing its victims. 

In the early 1900s, repair began in earnest as the site prepared to be a tourist attraction. The new director, Amedeo Maiuri, wanted to recreate the atmosphere of the Roman town. They cleared the main road, the Via dell’Abbondanza, and rebuilt almost every excavated building along its length.  The large palestra also received heavy work. They did not realize that the tools used, chiefly the alkaline in the cement mixture, worsened erosion and damage.  

In 1943, a new threat loomed over the city. Allied bombs falling during World War Two destroyed several houses on the main street. A few years later, and earthquake caused further damage. Work for the rest of the century focused on rebuilding those locations, using much safer supplies. Rebuilt sites included the large palestra, the House of Epidius Rufus, The House of Triptolemus, and the park museum.  Ironically, the House of Gladiators, which collapsed in 2010 creating much anger and dispute, was almost entirely a reconstruction. 

Modern Efforts

Later rebuilding, took place in the 1980s. Yet even so, by the time of the collapse that took place in 2010, Pompeii was in serious crisis. Only about ten buildings and 14 acres of the 110 visible were open to tourists. Luckily, experts were vocal about their concerns, and in 2012 received funds for emergency intervention and future efforts.  The current director, Massimo Osanna, feels excited about the city’s future. He and his team are continuing to work on the “Great Pompeii Project.” It’s an ambition plan, calling for meticulous, cross-disciplinary study as well as improved conservation and restoration. The goal is to revive Pompeii as a living picture of ancient Roman life. The first phase was completed in 2015, and opened another 12,500 m²  of area to the public.

With funding to protect the ruins, new work has begun in the 54 or more acres of untouched city. 2018 saw amazing new findings. The “street of balconies” contains very expensive villas, some whose second stories were preserved, rare in Pompeii. Team members also found a richly adorned shrine and a garden with preserved plants of intense value to botanists. Newly found remains include several human and a stable with a number of horses. Pompeii’s renaissance will continue to provide new  knowledge of history, while still sharing its immersive experience with visitors.

Sources:  Butterworth, Alex, Pompeii: The Living City; Mau, August, Pompeii, Its Life and Art; Current World Archaeology, Issue 90, “New Finds from Pompeii;” Frank Viviano, National Geographic, “Bringing the Ghostly City of Pompeii Back to Life.”

Photo: Face, sculpture, Pompeii by  jfleszar is licensed under  CC0

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

But when the time shall come that the female conquers in battle,
Driving away the male, and wins great glory in Argos,
Many an Argive woman will tear both cheeks in her sorrow.
– Herodotus 6.77

The Argive Army in Ruins:

In 510 B.C., the Spartan king Cleomenes consulted the oracle of Apollo, who assured him that he would conquer Argos. When they learned that the Spartans intended war, the men of Argos gathered their weapons and marched out to face them. The two sides met in a great battle, but eventually the Argive line broke and the remaining soldiers fled. The Spartans killed many as they retreated, but some managed to escape into a sacred grove. Having taken some of the Argive men alive as prisoners, Cleomenes ruthlessly questioned them. He forced from them the names of all of their comrades, and armed with this knowledge, he called to each personally, promising safety. When each man emerged, Cleomenes immediately had him killed. 

Finally, one of those in the grove climbed a tree and saw what was happening. When no more men came out to his call, Cleomenes ordered his men to set the grove on fire, and the survivors sheltering there burned alive. Afterward, the king casually inquired to which gods the grove was sacred and learned that it was the grove of Argus. He responded by saying, “Apollo, god of prophecy, you seriously misled me when you foretold that I would capture Argos; I think your prediction has now come true.” He had apparently fulfilled the prophecy merely by his capture of the grove, for prophecies are vague tricky entities. Yet he still resolved to march on the city of Argos, blessing or no. 

Defending Argos:

Having destroyed the entire army of Argos, Cleomenes expected no resistance, but when he reached the walls, he saw to his surprise that they were manned, and an army stood before him. Telesilla had roused the remaining citizens of Argos from their despair and courageously organized the defense of the city. They gathered weapons from temples and private residences, wherever any could be found. She arrayed all the slaves of the city and all the children and elderly along the walls. The young women armed themselves and lined up outside the ramparts in defense of Argos.
Nevertheless, the Spartans gave a great battle cry and attacked, clashing with the women at the walls of the city.

Much to the surprise of Cleomenes and the Spartans, the women did not give ground, but fought valiantly. Eventually Cleomenes realized that he was in a losing situation. He had hoped that the women would withdraw in terror. Since that had not occurred, he faced two poor outcomes. Either his men would lose, to their great shame, or they would win, but only after slaughtering many women, similarly dishonorable. As a result, he called off his soldiers and Argos was saved from destruction. In commemoration, they celebrated the anniversary of the battle each year by swapping roles. The women of the city would dress in men’s tunics and the men would put on women’s dresses. They also commissioned a stone relief of Telesilla and placed it with honor before the Temple of Aphrodite.

What to See Here:

There are several notable remains of ancient Argos in the modern city. These include the temple to Athena Oxyderkes, and the temple of Pythian Apollo, which includes a manteion, an oracular shrine. Of note is the city’s temple. Built into the east side of the hill around the end of the 4th century B.C. The remains of this structure are spectacular, and the theatre counts among the most impressive surviving in Greece.

Adjacent to the theatre, one is able to see the remains of the ancient Agora (market place, or town centre), dating to the 6th century B.C., and the remains of the Bouleuterion are nearby. This council house was built in around 460 B.C., at the advent of democracy in Argos. Reflecting the city’s antiquity, tombs from the Classical and pre-Classical era can be seen.

Most notable is the Hellinikon Pyramid, which dates to the 4th century B.C. Its exact function is unknown, with theories ranging from tumulus tomb to fortress. The most intriguing – though not necessarily likely – is that it was built shortly after the Great Pyramid of Egypt, as a kind of homage, reflecting the excellent relationship the Argives had with the Egyptians. The Argos Museum is exceptionally well stocked with many of the smaller finds from the city.

Pausanias, Description of Greece, 2.20.8-10; Plutarch, Moralia, 245 c-f; Herodotus, Histories, VI.80Argos

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Photo: The Thermal Spring of Ancient Argos by Ploync is licensed under  CC BY-SA 3.0

Led by the general Publius Quinctilius Varus, whose incompetence was unfairly exaggerated in the aftermath of the battle an effort to provide a scapegoat, the Roman army had been marching in line deep though the heart of the German forest when it was ambushed on all sides by a confederation of Germanic tribes. For hours the Romans managed to keep their assailants at bay, no mean feat considering their line was stretched to between 15 and 20 kilometres and they were fighting in dense forest and heavy rain, and as darkness fell on the forest Varus’ men hastily erected a fortified camp, which they held through the night.

Sallying forth from the camp the next morning into the open country around the Wiehen Hills, the Roman army suffered heavy losses. They fought throughout the day, continuing their desperate march west, and struggled into the night, with torrential rain hampering the Romans’ already hopeless attempts at fending off the German tribesmen. But Arminius, the German general behind the attack, was himself a Roman citizen – an auxiliary officer of Germanic origin trained in the arts of Roman warfare. He had laid his trap, and the Romans were marching straight into it.

That night, Arminius ambushed Rome’s straggling soldiers, drawing them into a decisive battle at the foot of the Kalkriese Hill. It was a massacre. Funnelled into a narrow strip between forest and swampland, the legionaries were attacked from all sides, their German aggressors taking cover behind temporary earthworks. Varus and his commanding officers fell on their swords or were cut down as they fled. Any survivors were either killed, enslaved or ransomed (though, curiously, anyone ransomed lost their right to return to Italy).

Suetonius tells us that the ghost of Teutoburg would haunt Augustus for the rest of his life. In the immediate months following the disaster, the emperor, his hair matted and beard unkempt, would dash his head against the palace walls crying, “Quintili Vare, legiones redde!” – Quinctilius Varus, give me back my legions! Outside the imperial palace the battle had broader ramifications – ushering in a prolonged period of public mourning, and seeing Rome’s rampant imperial expansionism give way to a more cautious policy of consolidation.

Is there anything to see on the battlefield now ?

Until the late 1980s, our only evidence for where the Battle of Teutoburg Forest took place came from a line in Tacitus where he mentioned the saltus Teutoburgiensis between the Lippe and Ems rivers. Then in 1987, Tony Clunn, an amateur archaeologist armed with nothing but a metal detector, discovered a scattered trail of coins, none of which post-dated the Age of Augustus, and some leaden Roman sling bolts in the Kalkriese-Niewedder Senke near Osnabrück

Visitors to Kalkriese should visit the Varusschlacht Museum und Park Kalkriese. It comprises a vast outdoor section, which recreates part of the battlefield and its earthworks, and a watchtower, which gives an overview of the battlefield more broadly. Also part of the museum is a collection of artefacts recovered from the 24-kilometre corridor archaeologists have so far managed to excavate. Among its exhibits are spearheads, the remains of studded legionary sandals, and even a Roman ceremonial facemask, believed to have belonged to an officer.

Another attraction, at Detmold, some 100 kilometres southeast from the site of the battle, is the Hermannsdenkmal or “statue of Hermann”, completed in 1875. Hermann was the post-reformation name for Arminius, the Cheruscan war chief and victor against the Romans, possibly coined by Martin Luther, and widely endorsed in German nationalistic propaganda to become “Hermann the German.”

Bibliography:
J. R. Abdale, Four Days in September: The Battle of Teutoburg (Bloomington, 2013)

P. S. Wells, The Battle That Stopped Rome: Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of the Legions in the Teutoburg Forest (New York and London, 2003)

Featured photo: Steinbrüche bei Kalkriese by Curt Mühe is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Alexander Meddings