In the instability left by the death of Alexander the Great, his top generals vied for position and power, with four eventually succeeding in establishing their own dynasties. One of these was Seleucus, who ruled over the region of Syria and Mesopotamia from his seat in Babylon. The kingdom passed peacefully to Seleucus’s beloved son, Antiochus I, but the kingdom would not long remain in harmony. Antiochus’s eldest son rebelled against him, and so he put him to death, leading to the succession of his youngest son, Antiochus II, when he died in Sardis in 262 B.C.

Heritage of Alexander the Great

Antiochus II inherited not only the kingdom, but ongoing wars with Ptolemaic Egypt over the rule of Syria. About a decade after taking the throne, Antiochus managed to negotiate a peace with the Ptolemy II, but Ptolemy demanded that the agreement be sealed by marriage, Ptolemy’s own daughter Berenice married to Antiochus. Antiochus had been married even before he knew he was to be heir to the throne, to a woman named Laodice, a woman who would prove herself more than capable of holding her own on the shifting and treacherous political stage. Unlike many ancient marriages, theirs had been for love, long before Antiochus was a political player. After he became king, he named many cities after his beloved first wife, one of which, located on the Lycus River, became one of the most prosperous cities of Asia Minor.

This article is featuring wonderful photos taken by Izabela Miszczak. For more information and an exquisitely detailed walkthrough of the archaeological treasures of Laodicea ad Lycum, please see the excellent article written by Izabela and available on Turkish Archaeological News

A Rejected Queen

Laodice was herself a descendent of Seleucus I, his granddaughter by his second son, Achaeus, and thus a first cousin to her husband, Antiochus. She came from a long line of strong Macedonian women on her grandfather’s side, and proud Persian princesses on her grandmother’s, and she was very willing to defend her position in the empire. However, Ptolemy’s conditions for the treaty were non-negotiable, and though he appears to have held genuine affection for his first wife, Antiochus reluctantly divorced her to secure the treaty. He gave her a gift of a sizable tract of land in Anatolia in an attempt to console her for his rejection.

The marriage to Berenice was successfully completed, the treaty sealed, and Laodice appeared mollified for the moment, perhaps feeling secure in the fact that her children by Antiochus were the only plausible heirs to the throne. Yet not too long after the marriage, Berenice produced a son to Antiochus, named for his father, and the king transferred his inheritance to the infant. Laodice remained in Ephesus, but her lands, wealth, and status granted her considerable political pull, and she continued maneuvering to put her own sons in power.

Ruthless Ambition

In 246, B.C., she enjoyed a breakthrough. Ptolemy II died, and in the commotion of the transfer of power to Ptolemy III, Antiochus abandoned his new family and moved to Ephesus to be with Laodice again. He apparently transferred his succession back to Seleucus, and shortly after, Laodice arranged to have him poisoned, fearing that he might change his mind again. She also resolved to rid herself of Berenice and the threat of the infant Antiochus. Although Berenice sent word to her brother to help her secure the throne and also managed to arouse the support and sympathy of her subjects, Laodice’s assassins got there before she could prepare a defense. They brutally murdered her son, displaying a baby boy of similar appearance to the people and claiming that young Antiochus still lived. 

Meanwhile, in Ephesus, Laodice began to have doubts about the loyalty of Sophron, the garrison commander there. She confided in one of her female attendants, Danae, who was also an intimate friend of hers. Unbeknownst to Laodice, Danae was also Sophron’s lover, and she warned him of his impending arrest, and Sophron turned over the city to Ptolemy III. When she learned of her friend’s betrayal, Laodice responded with ruthless vengeance, first interrogating Danae, and when her former friend refused to give her any answers, she had Danae thrown from cliff to her death.

The End of Berenice

Back in Babylon, Berenice still hoped to launch a counter to Laodice’s plans, and remained under her Gallic guard from protection, but Laodice soon sent assassins to clear the final obstacle to her sons’ succession. Several of Berenice’s female attendants died while desperately defending her, but ultimately they could not prevent her murder. Three of the women who survived the attack found an imposter to place in her bed, and claimed that she was wounded but certain to recover. In this way, they kept the citizens of Seleucia in support of Berenice until Ptolemy could arrive. He sent letters to all the provinces of the kingdom in the name of Berenice and Antiochus, and so managed to secure the entire realm without a single battle. Yet despite the welcome acquisition of land, Ptolemy was enraged at the murder of his sister. He declared war on Seleucus II, now ruling under the watchful eye of his mother, Laodice. He waged a successful, seventeen year war against them. Later Laodice became embroiled in a civil war between her two sons, as she supported her second son in a revolt against Seleucus.

The City of Laodicea ad Lycum

Laodicea ad Lycum, named for the ruthless queen of Seleucia, also enjoyed success, just like its namesake. Though suffering damage in the Mithridatic Wars and as a result of multiple earthquakes, it nonetheless rose to great prominence due to its location on important trade routes and its production of coveted black wool exports. The city was also a hub of important medical learning, and even produced the famous ancient ophthalmologist, Demosthenes Philalethes. It was also a major banking city, increasing its wealth and prestige.

The citizens of Laodicea were so prosperous that they even refused financial support from the Rome and the Emperor Nero in the wake of devastating earthquakes in 60 A.D., but insisted on paying to repair the damages themselves. Due to a large and thriving Jewish community, Laodicea became an important city in early Christianity, and its wealth is even acknowledged in passages of the Christian Bible. Laodicea became an important bishopric into the Byzantine Period, and was only abandoned sometime in the 13^th century A.D. after enduring multiple raids by foreign attackers. 

What to See Here?

Despite not featuring with any great prominence in the historical record, certainly in comparison to other sites in this region of Asia Minor, the archaeological remains of Laodicea attest to a city of considerable wealth and status in antiquity. One is able to see at the archaeological site the ruins of a stadium, baths, and a gymnasium. These structures are accompanied by 2 theatres. Both are of impressive size and indicate the wealth of the city. The slightly smaller theatre is referred to by epigraphic sources as an Amphitheatre, and it was dedicated to the Emperor Vespasian in 79 A.D. by an exceptionally wealthy private citizen. The site is also scattered with the remains of temples, the most impressive of which – known as “Temple A” – has some columns still standing giving visitors a sense of the scale of the ancient city.

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Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Sources: Sources: Porphyrius, Comments on the book of Daniel; Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists; Eusebius, Chronicle;Justinus, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus’ Philippic Histories;Polyaenus, Stratagems.

Header image: Laodicea northern sacred agora. Photo by Izabela Miszczak. Used by permission of the author.

Founder of Cynic Philosophy

This philosophical approach was to live by nature and free of material possessions, as wealth caused anxiety and problems. The aim was for a clear mind, free from foolishness and false belief. Therefore, social conventions and moral codes had to be questioned.  The word ‘Cynic’ comes from the term kynikos, meaning ‘dog-like’. The specifics are a bit hazy, but the use of ‘dog’ as an insult against the Cynics for their shameless behaviour was common. Without a doubt, Diogenes practised these values in excess.

He was born at Sinope, where his father Hicesias was the master of the mint. Interestingly, Diogenes went into exile after he and his father were involved in a debasement of currency scandal. For this reason, Diogenes migrated to Athens. Subsequently, Diogenes began his famous residence in the large jar in the Athenian Agora. Ancient evidence reveals that the ‘Agora’ was the central public gathering space of a Greek city, which was originally used to announce civic and political matters. The Agora then later became a hub for merchants, shopkeepers, traders, politicians, and philosophers. This made it an important part of Athenian civic life. Consequently, the Agora would have been a high traffic area. Hence, one can wonder how frequently Diogenes would have been in the public eye.  

Diogenes Tales

It is argued that Diogenes used a more ‘erratic and aggressive style of philosophy’.  Although evidence is scattered and claimed to be of doubtful authenticity, the legends about Diogenes and his behaviour certainly reveal him to have been an eccentric character. Here is a selection of these tales:

• Behold, a man!

As a response to Plato’s tongue-in-cheek definition of a man as a bipedal featherless animal, Diogenes plucked a chicken, brought it to Plato’s Academy in Athens and declared “Behold! I have brought you a man!” Consequently, ‘having broad nails’ was added to the definition.

• A drinking cup was too luxurious

Diogenes threw away his cup after watching a child drinking out of his hands, stating “A child has beaten me in plainness of living!”, referencing his austere lifestyle.

• A futile search

Another tale describes Diogenes walking through the streets during the day with his oil lamp lit. When asked about this behaviour, he declared “I’m looking for an honest man!”, implying all those around him were immoral.

• When he got caught out for public indecency…

It is said that when Diogenes was approached for masturbating in public, he would lament “If only it were as easy to relieve hunger by rubbing one’s stomach…”

• Food always tastes better when it’s free

When asked what wine he found most pleasant to drink, Diogenes replied, “That for which other people pay.”

• I’ll give you a dog!

During a feast, some of the guests kept throwing bones to Diogenes as you would throw scraps to a dog. In response, Diogenes played the part by lifting his leg and urinating on them.

• I’m sunbathing here, thanks

Legends around when Diogenes met Alexander the Great in Corinth are found in various ancient sources. It is recorded that Alexander came across Diogenes lying on the ground in the sun and asked him if he needed anything. Diogenes responded that he needed nothing else except for Alexander to get out of his sun. Alexander declared that “If I were not Alexander than I would wish to be Diogenes!”

Later Years

Diogenes spent his later years in Corinth, where he died in 323BCE. He remains an interesting character from the ancient world and continues to amuse and capture one’s imagination. Additionally, as these stories occurred in sites known today, it helps bring them to life. And lastly, Diogenes supposedly lived in a large ceramic jar near the gymnasium in Corinth too.

What to see on Athens Agora today :

The Ancient Agora was founded as early as the 6th century BC and was a centre for commerce and political assembly for the ancient Greeks. While Greece was considered a Roman province following the destruction of Corinth in 146 BC, Athens attempted to maintain independence until Sulla’s siege in 86 BC. Following this, Caesar instigated the construction of a Roman Agora to the east of the ancient Athenian Agora. While this new centre became the primary place for business and commerce, the buildings throughout the ancient Agora continued to be used, including the famous Stoa of Attalus. During the Roman period a number of new monuments and buildings were constructed, which show a focus on the Agora’s use for cultural pursuits. Additional stoas and speaking platforms were constructed as well as the Odeion of Agrippa (15 BC), the Library of Pantainos (AD 100), several temples dedicated to worship of the imperial family, a statue of Emperor Hadrian, and a basilica (2nd century AD). The Heruli raid in AD 267 saw extensive damage to much of the Ancient Agora. The late-Roman fortifications were built following this raid from architectural pieces scavenged from the destroyed buildings.

The Athenian Agora is open for visitors to explore the ancient ruins. While the Stoa of Attalus has been restored, many of the Roman-era buildings are fragmentary with only statues, partially standing columns, and the foundations or lower walls to show the original arrangement of the Agora. Of the Imperial-era temples, only scattered architectural elements and foundations remain. The torso portion of the statue of Hadrian is on display. The partially excavated ruins of the Library of Pantainos are visible to the south of the Stoa of Attalus, and show the foundations and lower walls. The later Roman defensive wall was built over the rear library rooms. Much of the late-Roman fortified wall remains with its interesting mix of marble blocks, statue bases, Ionic and Doric columns, and inscribed plaques. A museum is located in the Stoa of Attalos. While many of the displays focus on the earlier Classical or Hellenistic periods, there are also exhibitions of Roman-era artefacts and prominent citizens.

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The Agora of Athens is just one of the 25 sites in Athens that TimeTravelRome app shows on the map and describes in detail.

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Authors: Diogenes story was written for Timetravelrome by Meaghan Zarb. The text about Athens’ Agora was written by Michelle Richards.

Sources:

Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, 6.2.

Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, 7.

Plutarch, Lives – Alexander, 14.

Lucian, Historia, 3.

American School of Classical Studies at Athens, The Athenian Agora: A Guide to the Excavation and Museum, 3rd edn, Athens, Ekdotike Hellados, 1976.

Baltussen, Han,‘A Bark Worse than His Bite? Diogenes the Cynic and the Politics of Tolerance in Athens’, in The Art of Veiled Speech: Self-Censorship from Aristophanes to Hobbes, Han Baltussen and Peter J. Davies (eds), Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015.

Hazel, John, Who’s Who in the Greek World?, London/New York, Taylor and Francis Group, 2002.

Piering, Julie, ‘Cynics’, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Piering, Julie, ‘Diogenes of Sinope’, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Header Photo: Diogenes of Sinope painted by Jean-Léon Gérôme in 1860, now in the Walters Art Museum. The picture is in public domain.

Artemisia I

Artemisia was the daughter of Lygdamis I, satrap of Halicarnassus under the Persians. She had taken the throne upon the death of her husband. Their son was still too young to hold power. In 480 B.C., she joined Xerxes’ invasion, not through coercion, but simply from a desire for valor and honor. Her five ships were among the best in his fleet. When faced with the defending Greek fleet, Xerxes sent round to all of his commanders, asking for their advice. All suggested that he fight, with the exception of Artemisia. She bravely suggested that he be cautious against the skilled Athenian navy.

Unfortunately for Xerxes, he did not listen to her. Although he did not disrespect her or her opinion, he was overly confident in the invincibility of his army. Some feared and others hoped that Xerxes would punish Artemisia, possibly with her life, for daring to speak out. However, he was actually pleased with her honesty and praised her boldness, despite following the advice of the others. The battle began in the straits of Salamis, and the Persians soon began to struggle. In the midst of the fighting, Artemisia was the only one to recognize the body of King Xerxes’ brother, Ariabignes, in the water. She was able to retrieve it from among the bloody debris, later returning it honorably to Xerxes.

Escape from Salamis

In the thick of the battle aboard her flagship, Artemisia realized that defeat was inevitable. She tried to sail out of the narrow passage, but an Athenian ship hotly pursued her, and the line of still incoming Persian ships blocked her escape. In a daring move, she rammed her ship into one of her own allies, sinking the friendly vessel. The Athenian ship subsequently believed she was either a Greek, or a defector, and it broke off the chase. She was able to extricate herself from the pandemonium. Had the Athenian captain known that the ship belonged to Artemisia, he would not have abandoned his attack. Athens had offered a bounty of 10,000 drachmas to any who could capture Artemisia alive.

From their vantage point on the cliffs overlooking the sea, Xerxes and his advisers could make out Artemisia’s ensign aboard her ship, but could not see which ship she had rammed and sunk. Assuming it to be an enemy trireme, one of Xerxes’ court pointed it out, saying, “See, master, how well Artemisia fights, and how she has just sunk a ship of the enemy?” Also unable to see that she had sunk one of their own, Xerxes praised her and remarked, “My men have behaved like women, my women like men!” After the battle, Xerxes again sought advice. This time he listened to Artemisia, and withdrew the majority of his forces back to Persia.

Artemisia II

 In 353 B.C., Mausolus, King of Caria, died after a twenty-four year reign. His widow, and sister, Artemisia II, took over as queen. She was distraught at the loss of her brother and husband, and commissioned the construction of a massive tomb for him. This grave, known now as the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The word “mausoleum” in modern English is derived from King Mausolus and the splendid crypt that his wife designed. Artemisia also, apparently, drank a small amount of his ashes, mixed into a drink, each day after his death.

The rulers of the city of Rhodes highly disapproved of a woman ruler in Halicarnassus. They sent a fleet to attack her. Artemisia concealed her ships and soldiers in a secret harbor built by her husband. When the Rhodians arrived, she invited them to enter the main harbor and come up into the city. She and her infantry then massacred them. Meanwhile, her ships came out and captured the empty Rhodian vessels. She filled them with her own men, and sent them back to Rhodes. The Rhodians welcomed their ships home, utterly surprised when the Carian men disembarked and took control of Rhodes.

Another strategic deception allowed Artemisia to take the city of Latmus. She concealed her soldiers near the city. She herself led a large group of women, eunuchs, and musicians in a noisy procession out to sacrifice at the grove of the Mother of the Gods. The citizens of Latmus came out to watch the glorious procession, and the soldiers slipped in and took the city with ease.

Ada of Caria

Artemisia II’s sister was Ada, who was also married to another of their brothers, Idrieus. After Artemisia II died in 351 B.C., wasting away out of grief according to the ancient histories, Idrieus became king of Caria. He ruled from Halicarnassus until his death only seven years later. Ada succeeded him, but was usurped in 340 B.C. by their youngest brother, Pixodarus. She fled to the fortress Alinda, and was still taking refuge there when Alexander the Great invaded the region. Ada went out to meet him and surrendered Alinda to him freely, seeking an alliance through familial ties. She said she was too old to be his wife, but would gladly take a role as his mother.

Alexander kindly accepted, and after successfully taking the city of Halicarnassus in a great siege, he presented the city to Ada and returned to her control of the kingdom of Caria. Plutarch tells that they remained in contact throughout his ongoing campaigns, always on terms of greatest affection. Alexander always referred to her as “mother,” and Ada used to send Alexander pastries and sweetmeats, made by her best bakers.

What to See Here:

Unfortunately, modern Bodrum has largely covered the remains of ancient Halicarnassus. However, one is able to trace almost the entirety of the ancient defensive perimeter. Similarly, the location of several temples and the city’s theatre are identifiable, even if little material remains standing. For an account of the ancient city, there are few better sources than the description provided by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius.

Although was an earthquake destroyed the great Mausoleum in the Middle Ages, enough has been recovered to allow historians to piece together a reasonable understanding of what the structure may once have looked. Remains of the Mausoleum’s statuary decoration are displayed in the British Museum.

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Author: written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen.

Sources: Herodotus, Histories; Plutarch, Life of Alexander; Polyaenus, Stratagems; Arrian, Anabasis; Justinus, Epitome of the Philippic History.

Header photo: The theatre of ancient Halicarnassus, by Carole Raddato licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0

Pella is best known as the capital of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, and the birthplace of Alexander. In honor of Pella, here are six crazy tales about Alexander the Great. Many ancient historians wrote of Alexander, and many of their accounts still exist today. They paint a reasonably accurate picture of the young conqueror and his exploits. However, the sources are not always in total agreement, and some tales blur the line between fact and fiction. Enjoy reading below, and decide for yourself how far the truth goes:

1. Alexander paid a peculiar tribute to Achilles in Troy:

Alexander was heavily influenced by the Trojan War. His mother’s ancestors claimed to trace their roots back to Achilles. His tutor, none other than the great philosopher Aristotle, had given him a copy of Homer’s Illiad. He slept with the book and a dagger under his pillow every night. He likened himself to a next Achilles, and his best friend and possible lover, Hephaestion, to Patroclus. When the Macedonians arrived in Troy, he could not help but visit the tomb of Achilles. He took the great hero’s shield, which he used for the remainder of his campaigning. After placing oil and garlands on the sarcophagus, he and his closest friends ran a race, completely naked, around the gravestone. 

2. His wild drinking and quick temper caused the death of one of his top generals:

The Macedonians greatly enjoyed drunken carousing. In fact, Alexander had gotten into a serious fight with his father at Philip’s wedding to his seventh wife. The situation had almost come to violence. While in the city of Maracanda, it did. One of Alexander’s older generals, Cleitus the Black, began to voice concerns over Alexander’s many adoptions of Persian customs. When the yelling match escalated, Cleitus finally screamed out that Alexander would be nothing without his father. 

Enraged, Alexander speared the man through the chest. When he came to his senses, he was horrified. Cleitus’s sister had been his nurse, and Cleitus had saved Alexander’s life at the Battle of Granicus River. His friends had to stop him from killing himself, and forcibly take him to his tent. Alexander fell into mourning, and refused to eat or sleep for days, until his friends finally managed to pull him out of his depression. 

3. The Queen of the Amazons sought him as a lover:

While in the Hyrcanian frontier, the Amazon Queen and three hundred of her soldiers came to visit Alexander. Impressed by her presence and dignity, he asked her if she had any request to make of him. Completely unabashed, she declared that she had come to conceive a child with him. She said that it was obvious she was the best of all women, and that he was the most remarkable among all men. 

A child from the two of them would be destined to “surpass the rest of mankind in excellence.” She proposed that if the child were a girl, she would keep her with the Amazons. If it was a boy, she would send him to his father as a worthy heir to the throne. Alexander agreed, and they spent thirteen days as lovers, until she believed she was with child.  

4. In India, he survived taking a four foot arrow through the chest:

During an assault on the stronghold of the Mallian people, Alexander’s army was reluctant to attack. When the men would not climb the siege ladders, Alexander mounted one himself, and raced to the top of the walls. Alone and exposed, he was an easy target. In a daring decision typical of the young conqueror, Alexander leapt down into the middle of the stronghold. Desperately afraid for their king, the men now threw themselves at the ladders so intensely that the ladders broke, and only three of Alexander’s closest bodyguards made it up. 

While defending himself alone, he was shot by a four foot arrow that passed into his side, through his lung, and out at the neck. The three men who accompanied him defended him fiercely, but fell one by one, either dead or seriously wounded. Eventually, his men broke into the city. Believing their beloved king dead, they massacred the citizens in a rage. Yet Alexander, amazingly, survived and healed. 

5. He cured his friend Ptolemy with the help of a prophetic dream:

Only a few weeks after Mallia, the Macedonians fought and defeated the Indian Brahmins. As the battle concluded, they were horrified to discover that the Brahmins had tipped many of their weapons with poison. The barest scratch was enough to begin a slow, painful death. Among those afflicted was one of Alexander’s closest friends, Ptolemy. A sharp thinker and excellent soldier, Ptolemy was also kind and approachable. He was beloved not only of Alexander, but the entire army. Alexander refused to leave Ptolemy’s side. Eventually, late into the night, he fell asleep, and in a dream he saw the plant that would cure the poison. His soldiers found the plant for him, he administered it, and Ptolemy recovered. Ptolemy would later be among the most successful of Alexander’s successors, and found the long-lasting Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt.

6. Alexander probably died several days later than his friends realized:

Several ancient sources mention that after Alexander’s unexpected death at the age of thirty-three, his body remained pure and unspoiled for over a week with no special preservation. This was in the heart of summer in the city of Babylon, and highly unlikely. What probably happened was that Alexander fell into a deep coma before death. Unbeknownst to his friends, he remained alive even as they mourned him and began to quarrel over his kingdom. 

After Alexander

Following the death of Alexander, his generals fought for over four decades as they vied for territory and power. Macedonia fell under the rule of the Antigonids. Many of the ruins that remain today were built in this era, including the large agora, or market, and many opulent additions to the palace. After King Perseus lost the Third Macedonian War in 168 B.C., Rome took administrative control of Macedonia. Pella likely began as the administrative seat of the roman governor, but around 100 years later, the city of Thessalonica took that role. Between 45 and 30 B.C., Rome granted the city the status of colonia. Though little in Pella remains standing, the archaeological site of the ancient city is extensive.  

Sources: Plutarch, Life of Alexander; Curtius, The History of Alexander; Arrian, Anabasis and Indica; Diodorus Siculus, Library of History.

Header photo:  Alexander the Great by Ruthven is licensed under  Public Domain

What to See Here:

Most of Pella’s remains date from the time of Antigonus II in the early third century BC, when the city was at the height of its prosperity. The Royal Palace is perhaps the most magnificent of these. Only partly excavated, it covers a staggering 60,000 square metres and dates back as far as the time of Philip II. Its bath complex was added slightly later, under the reign of Cassander (305 – 297 BC). Little of the city wall that Livy described has survived, though part of a brick rampart is visible just north of the palace. Nor do the opulent villas that once housed Pella’s famous mosaic floors still stand (the only testament to their existence besides some traces of wall being the mosaics themselves). Artifacts recovered from the site are on display at the Archaeological Museum of Pella.

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Tyre enjoyed its heights of prosperity around the 10^th-7^th centuries B.C. Its wealth came from the abundance of Murex shellfish. Their shells enabled the Tyrians to produce and sell a rich purple dye unrivaled in the ancient world. In the 6^th century B.C., their prosperity attracted the attention of King Nebuchadnezzar II. He attacked Tyre, maintaining a siege for thirteen years but never taking the city. This spectacular failure discouraged attempts from most kings and generals, but Alexander the Great was neither an average king, nor an average general. In 332 B.C., he began his spectacular siege of Tyre.

Macedonia Attacks

Determined to overthrow the Persian Empire, Alexander knew he would need to interrupt the movements of the Persian navy. With no fleet himself, he began a strategic conquest along the coast of Asia Minor. City after city fell to the great Macedonian army. By the time they reached Tyre, Alexander’s reputation had preceded him. King Azemilk wisely sent out envoys to meet Alexander, pledging his support and allegiance, and placing his city at the Macedonian King’s disposal. Alexander offered to make a sacrifice at the Temple of Melqart, a Phoenician equivalent to Alexander’s beloved Hercules. Unfortunately, the Tyrians sacred festival had begun, and they allowed no foreigner to set foot on the island during that time. King Azemilk proposed that Alexander could sacrifice to Melqart on the mainland in Old Tyre, but he could not allow him into the central city. 

Alexander was not a man who took kindly to being told “no.” Insulted and infuriated, Alexander exclaimed “you think nothing of this land army, because of your confidence in its position, living as you do on an island, but I am soon going to show you that you are really on the mainland. And you can be sure that I shall either enter your city or storm it.” In an attempt to avoid a protracted siege, he sent messengers to the island, demanding that the city surrender. Secure in their defenses, the Tyrians duplicitously murdered the messengers. They threw their bodies off the walls and into the sea, as Alexander and the Macedonians watched in horror. So began the great siege of Tyre. During the months-long battle, both sides showed incredible innovation in the art of warfare. They invented engineering marvels of their era, some of which remain commonplace today.

Siege and Defense Innovations

Alexander decided to construct a mole through the harbor to support a bridge. His men thought the task impossible, but such was his magnetism that he convinced them to begin work willingly. The Macedonians destroyed Old Tyre, using timber and stone from the city to construct a base on the seabed. Initially not comprehending their enemy’s intentions, the Tyrians rowed out in small boats and floated alongside the toiling Macedonians, mocking them incessantly. They taunted the “famous warriors, now carrying loads on their backs like pack-animals” and jeeringly asked if Alexander “had more power than Neptune.” If anything, the insults only steeled the resolve of the Macedonians. Soon the Tyrians realized that they were indeed in danger. They returned in boats, but this time with archers, shooting at the workers. Alexander ordered his men to hoist up animal skins and large sheets of canvas to protect his men.

The Tyrians responded by constructing a kamikaze boat. Smeared with tar and Sulphur, they rowed it out until it caught the wind, lit the bows on fire, and jumped off into their following boats. The flaming vessel crashed headlong into the mole, setting the timbers and structures ablaze. Men burned in the flames. Those who could threw themselves into the sea. The Tyrians wanted to take them alive, so they beat the swimming Macedonians’ hands until the men were disabled. Then they would take them on board. Undeterred, Alexander resolved to build an even bigger mole. Using whole trees heaped with dirt and rock, they created an immensely strong, interlocking structure. Also of assistance, was the fortuitous arrival of Alexander’s fleet, which gave further protection to the working soldiers. 

The City Falls

Alexander mounted his rams and towers on his ships, and attacked the walls from a floating siege array. To combat this, the Tyrians hurled huge chunks of stones over the walls, so that the ships would tear themselves up if they came too close. Alexander mounted winches on the ships, and anchored them securely to winch away the debris. The Tyrians sent swimmers out to cut the anchor lines, and so Alexander replaced the rope with chain. At one point during the siege, Carthaginian ships came to give encouragement to the city. They offered no significant assistance, but at least evacuated Tyre’s women and children to Carthage for safety. The Tyrians focused on building a second wall around the city for protection. Soon after the wall’s completion, the mole reached the island, and the Macedonians brought their siege engines up. 

Fierce fighting ensued around the walls, with the Tyrians continuing to demonstrate their ingenuity. They created spoked wheels to turn continuously on the ramparts and destroy incoming arrows. They also heated sand until it was scalding, and then dumped it over the walls onto the attacking Macedonians. Despite all their defenses, the rams did their work and broke their walls. At the same time, Alexander had brought up his ships still carrying siege towers. Tyre faced a breach from all sides. In a daring act typical of the young king, Alexander mounted the first floating siege tower, threw down a plank of wood to bridge the distance to the city walls, and ran across it alone, exhorting his men to follow him. The city fell to the onslaught. 

Defeat and Rebirth

Frustrated by the six, almost seven month siege and the painful deaths of his men, Alexander gave his soldiers free reign. They destroyed and burned the city. More than 13,000 Tyrians were sold into slavery, and 2,000 were crucified and their bodies displayed along the shoreline. Alexander spared only those who had taken refuge in the Temple of Marqat. He allowed the Carthaginian ambassadors to return to their city, but he issued a dire warning. He considered them his enemies, and would return for them one day.

Alexander never got that chance, and Carthage fell not to Macedonia, but to Rome. In an ironic twist, Rome destroyed Carthage, but rebuilt her sister-city, Tyre, after it was annexed in 64 B.C. by Pompey the Great. Tyre regained some of her former glory during the Roman era. This can be seen in the excellent Roman ruins that remain to this day. Remnants of Alexander’s great mole are also still visible, lying beneath the waters of the harbor.

Sources: Plutarch, Life of Alexander; Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander; Quintus Curtius Rufus, The History of Alexander; Diodorus Siculus, Library of History

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.0

Photo: Tyre Al Mina Colonnaded Street by Heretiqis licensed under  CC BY-SA 2.5

What to see here?

Tyre’s best Roman claim to fame is its second century Hippodrome: the largest ever discovered. Built for the purpose of chariot races, it could accommodate an audience of 20,000. It is also the site of a large necropolis dating from the Roman-Byzantine era, a second century triumphal arch (though to whom remains a mystery), a beautiful colonnade made from white, green-veined marble and the remains of the Roman baths. Near the Al Mina archaeological site is the colonnaded “Mosaic Road” where underfoot you can see a host of Roman and Byzantine originals.  

Tyre is under the protection of UNESCO as a listed world heritage site. Unfortunately, the body responsible for cultural heritage and preservation was unable to protect it from the bombing destruction caused by Israeli offensives of the 1980s and 90s. 

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

Encounter with the Greek Captives:

Having defeated the Persian King Darius III in two major battles and fought his way through a deadly ambush at the Persian Gates, Alexander marched inexorably deeper into Persian territory. He soon rode toward Persepolis ahead of the main body of his army, accompanied by his companion cavalry, his most trusted soldiers, generals and friends. As they approached the city, they saw a pitiful group of around 800 men staggering out to meet them. They were Greeks, taken prisoner in various wars and subjected, some for years, to torments by their Persian captors. 

The ancient world was far from a gentle place. Alexander’s Macedonians had witnessed, and committed, their fair share of brutality. However,
the sad spectacle shocked even the toughest of them. The Persian captors had mutilated every one of the former prisoners. Some of the men were missing feet, and some hands, noses, or ears. Still others had been branded with Persian letters, beaten, tormented, and humiliated, all to amuse the tormentors. “They looked more like outlandish phantoms than men, with no recognizably human characteristic apart from their voices” and the Macedonians wept passionately for their plight. 

The former captives cried out to Alexander gratefully, exclaiming that Jupiter, avenger of the Greeks, had sent him to deliver them. Wiping away his tears, Alexander encouraged them to take heart, and promised that they would see their homes and families again. Then he said: “‘I have had pack-animals reserved for your transportation and I have ordered a gift of 1,000 denarii to be given to each of you. When you return to Greece, I shall ensure that, this misfortune of yours apart, nobody can consider his condition in life superior to yours.’ “

Alexander Enraged:

Despite this promise, they stared at the ground in silence, with tears welling up in their eyes, and Alexander gently asked what saddened them. After a moment, a spokesman answered that they didn’t want to return to Greece as monsters. They begged the king only to grant them a piece of land where they could spend the rest of their lives with one another. Deeply moved, Alexander gave them each 3,000 denarii in place of 1000. He also gave them gifts of clothes, cattle, sheep and corn seed to help them start their new lives.

The next day, now turning from compassion to fury, the generals met.  Alexander growled that he hated no city more than Persepolis, which had produced the poor, mutilated captives. His friends agreed, and when the remainder of the army came up, they all stormed the undefended city. Alexander often granted mercy to cities that surrendered without bloodshed. This time, however, still burning with fury over the tortured Greeks, he allowed his soldiers to pillage wildly. They quickly responded to brutality with brutality, sacking the city, hacking apart precious artwork, smashing statues, and butchering any that they found. Eventually the king ordered that they at least leave any remaining women and children unharmed. 

Fire in Persepolis:

Yet Alexander himself had worse in store for the city. That night, a fire started and burned through many of the old, ornate palaces of the kings of Persia. Ancient authors were uncertain exactly how, why, and who started the fire, and modern historians still debate the question today. Arrian claimed that the Macedonians set the fire rationally and deliberately. He believed they took their vengeance for the poor souls they had met along the road and exacted retribution for 480 B.C., when Persia burnt the city of Athens. However, Diodorus, Curtius, and Plutarch all relate that a courtesan of Ptolemy’s named Thais instigated the arson. She made a speech during the Macedonians’ feasting and revels that night in which she exhorted them to avenge Athens. Wildly drunk, they eagerly paraded out and started the fire, which engulfed the cultural heart of the Persian Empire.

Some of these historians also cite that Alexander regretted these actions. Yet whether drunkenly accidental or soberly deliberate, whether celebrated or lamented, the city still burned. Archaeologists today have found evidence of the fire. Ironically, such a careless act of destruction may have served to preserve a piece of Persian history. The fire compromised the structural integrity of the wall housing the Persepolis Administrative Archives. It collapsed, burying the tablets beneath it. Without this, they would likely have been destroyed by questing humans or simply by the elements over thousands of years. Instead, they were preserved and eventually recovered for study.

Sources: Diodorus, Library of History; Plutarch, Life of Alexander; Arrian, Anabasis; Curtius, The History of Alexander

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.

Photo: Persepolis sculpture by Peggychoucair is licensed under  CC03

What to see there ?

As one would expect of a UNESCO World Heritage Site, there are extensive and magnificent remains of ancient Persepolis. The structures that still exist there are some of the most evocative and beautiful to have survived from antiquity.

Visitors are able to see the remains of the Apanada, the greatest palace at Persepolis, built by Darius I in around 518B.C. The thirteen still-standing columns make for an incredible display of the previous splendor of this site, whilst there are also extensive decorative reliefs on display.

The Gate of All Nations, and well reserved. One can also incredibly well preserved. One can also see the former Throne Room, as well as a number of royal tombs, including that of Artaxerxes II.

Such is the fame and exceptional splendour of Persepolis that remains are on display in museums around the world, including in Tegeran, at the Fitzwilliam in Cambridge (UK), and at the Louvre in Paris.

To find out more: Timetravelrome

Heist of the Millennium:

Not ten years later, Alexander the Great was dead in Babylon with no heir to take his throne. His many generals vied for control in the power vacuum that followed. They divided the satraps, or provinces, that they had conquered over the years among themselves. Ptolemy, ever a shrewd player, opted to take Egypt. Despite its rich resources, it was far from their ancestral heartland of Macedonia in Greece, and therefore considered unimportant. Ptolemy withdrew to the capital of Memphis and slowly began to build his strength and wealth.Yet in 321 B.C., he made a bold move that propelled Egypt to the center of the struggle. 

Alexander’s body had lain embalmed in Babylon for almost two years, waiting for the completion of an ornate golden sarcophagus and massive carriage to carry him back to Macedonia. As the funeral procession, at last underway, moved through Damascus, Ptolemy intercepted it and hijacked the body of Alexander. He brought the king’s body to Memphis, and laid him to rest in the Temple of Ammon. The theft kicked off the First War of the Diadochi. Trouble had already been brewing between Ptolemy and Perdiccas, the regent of Macedonia. After the theft, Perdiccas tried to hold a show trial to condemn Ptolemy to death. Yet the soldiers were deeply fond of Ptolemy, who was “modest and unassuming … superlatively generous and approachable.” They instead voted to acquit. 

Attack on Egypt:

Nevertheless, Perdiccas marched on Egypt, with a large army of infantry, cavalry, and even war elephants. He first attempted to cross the Nile at the Ford of Camels, but Ptolemy had fortified the fortress there. The soldiers set up ladders to scale the walls, while the elephants began tearing apart the wooden palisades. Ptolemy had his best men with him in the vanguard of his army. Hoping to encourage his soldier, he rushed to the point where the fighting was thickest. Grabbing a long spear, he blinded the lead elephant, then attacked the men scaling the walls with reckless courage. His men followed his example, and rushed boldly into the chaos. After an exhausting day of fighting, Perdiccas eventually withdrew his men. Rather than resting, however, he led a quick march downstream toward Memphis, where a small island divided the large river. 

Hoping for surprise, he dispatched the attack at the first light of dawn. The first soldiers managed to get to the little island, but the water was deep. They were almost swept away by the strong current. Trying to make the crossing easier for his men, Perdiccas sent his elephants upstream in the river, and his horsemen downstream. He hoped the elephants would provide a break in the current, while the horsemen could catch any soldiers who needed it. The animals waded into the river, disturbing the mud and silt of the riverbed, which only deepened the channel between. The soldiers in the river panicked, believing Ptolemy had some kind of sluicegate upstream that he had opened to flood them. Those that could still manage it scrambled to the nearest solid land, and Perdiccas stopped the crossing.

Catastrophe at the Crossing:

The men who had made it to the island began to worry. If Ptolemy attacked them, they weren’t  enough to defend themselves, but the river was still running strong and fast. Reluctantly, they threw away their weapons and armor. It was their own gear that they had carried and protected for more than ten years of campaigning. However, they had no choice. Free of their burdens, they leapt back into the water. Those who could swim managed to navigate the swirling waters, but many did not. Flailing and drowning, they caught the attention of other residents of the water.  Hordes of Nile crocodiles arrived, feeding at will on both bodies and those still living and struggling to reach the safety of the shore. Their friends watched helplessly from the banks as their comrades were torn to pieces and the Nile ran red with blood.

The assault was a disaster, the river littered with mangled corpses. Over two thousand men died, whether by drowning or crocodiles. Some ancient historians even claimed that Perdiccas lost more men in the river than Alexander had in his years of campaigning. As Perdiccas’s men sat around their camp that night, they saw Ptolemy and his men on the other bank. They were reverently gathering the dead, despite being their enemies, and burying them will full rights and honors. Infuriated by the loss of life and disillusioned with Perdiccas’s command, three of Perdiccas’s senior officers, Pithon, Antigenes, and Seleucus, snuck into his tent that night and stabbed him to death. 

Ptolemy’s Legacy:

Ptolemy remained in Egypt for the rest of his life. He moved the capital of Egypt to Alexandria; the port city founded by Alexander, and made it the jewel of the ancient world. It eventually eclipsed Memphis entirely, which slowly faded from prominence beneath the splendor of the new city. Ptolemy earned the distinction of being the only one of Alexander’s successors to die peacefully of old age in his own bed. He founded the long-lasting Ptolemaic Empire, whose final member was Cleopatra VII, mistress of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, one of the most famous monarchs in history. 

Sources: Diodorus, Library of History; Strabo, Geography

This article was written for Time Travel Rome by Marian Vermeulen.T

Photo: Relief of Ptolemy I Making an Offering to Hathor  by Thad Zajdowicz
is licensed under  CC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0)

What to see Here:

The ancient city of Memphis has been under conservation as a world heritage site since 1979 and is today an open-air museum. It boasts considerable temple remains, the most important being the Temple of Ptah first mentioned by the ‘father of history’ Herodotus. Many remains from the temple have been shipped off to museum collections around the globe. A decent repository, however, can be found in Cairo’s Egyptian Museum. Within this enormous temple complex, archaeologists have uncovered the remains of what they believe to be the Temple of Apis: the bull manifestation of Ptah. It is described by the geographer Strabo, who accompanied conquering Roman soldiers there after Octavian’s victory over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium (31 BC). The only other significant Roman era site is a temple to Mithras, discovered by accident along with 11 statues in 1837 just north of Memphis.

To find out more: Timetravelrome.