This transportation axis between the Rhine and Meuse passed through various towns that were all founded under Augustus. In this article we will provide a guide to three of them: Maastricht (Traiectum ad Mosam), Heerlen, and Tongres (Atuatuca Tungrorum). We also provide a short description of Roman remains found in Liège (which depended from the Civitas Tungrorum), now part of the Archéoforum under the square Saint-Lambert.

Illustration of the Via Belgica from the “Roman bathing in Coriovallum – The thermae of Heerlen revisited” by K. Jeneson and W.K. Vos (eds.), 2020.

Maastricht – Traiectum ad Mosam

As many other sites on the Via Belgica, Maastricht owes its existence to this military road, which crossed the Meuse to the north of the Ardennes massif where the valley sides are gentler. The site emerged at the confluence of the river Jeker, on the west bank, and the river Geul, on the east bank, with the river Meuse.

There are no known ancient sources which relate to the ancient Maastricht, excepting a mention in the Historiae, written by Tacitus, at the beginning of the 2nd century AD. It concerns the Roman general Labeo who held the bridge across the Meuse – pons mosae fluminis – during the Batavian uprising (69-70 AD), whilst Julius Civilis together with his allies, marching from Cologne in a westerly direction, attempted to seize it. It is the oldest known account of a battle for the Meuse crossing. The town’s Latin name – Traiectum ad Mosam (Crossing on the Meuse) – first occurs in the Middle Ages.

Reconstruction of the late Roman Maastricht. By Kleon3 – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Maastricht was possibly a stronghold, but there was also a sanctuary at the mouth of the Jeker, as attested by archaeological finds under the present site of the cloister of the church of Our Lady (Onze Lieve Vrouwe). This sanctuary, a bath-house and some incomplete residential houses are the only Roman buildings which have been excavated as yet. It seems that a large part of the settlement was destroyed around 270 AD. Later, a smaller fort (170 metres long by 90 metres wide) was rebuilt in the second quarter of the 4th century on the west bank of the river Meuse.

Maastricht keeps little remains of its Roman past. For example the Op de Thermen courtyard keeps no traces of the ancient Thermae – all remains are hidden underneath the surrounding buildings.

Contours of a Roman bath house in the pavement of Op de Thermen square. By Kleon3 – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Excavation of a Roman bathhouse in 1963-1965. By Lahaye / Rijksdienst voor Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek. CC BY-SA 3.0.

The best-preserved Roman traces of Maastricht can be found in the Derlon Museum Cellar (Museumkelder Derlon), located on Onze Lieve Vrouweplein square. The place is unique: the Roman were preserved thanks to massive reconstruction works in 1983-85, which unearthed remains of a Roman sanctuary, including a walled square with a Jupiter Column. These finds attested that the area belonged to one of the central estates of the former Roman vicus.

View of Museumkelder Derlon (Hotel Derlon Museum Basement). By Kleon3 – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Excavations at the site of Derlon Museum in 1983. By Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Heerlen – Coriovallum

Coriovallum emerged during the Augustan period at the crossroads of two important Roman roads. The first is Via Belgica, and it linked the border region along the Rhine with the hinterland in Gaul; the second ran from Aquae Granni (Aachen) in the south, along the right bank of the Meuse, to the large legionary camp of Vetera in Xanten to the north. Coriovallum was thus directly linked to the two coloniae later established on the Rhine: Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne) and Colonia Ulpia Traiana (Xanten).

General view on the Heerlen Baths site. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

Coriovallum was built in order to defend the strategic location and serve as a base of operations for military companies and supply chains. Funerary offerings found by archeologists in the area prove that Coriovallum had his share of rich families, making it more than just a minor town, and this is attested by the existence of a bath house built after 50 AD.

Visual reconstruction of the Gallo-roman settlement at Heerlen. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

The first bathhouse consisted of a main building with four bathing rooms (apodyterium, frigidarium, tepidarium and caldarium) in a row and a fifth adjacent circular room (the laconicum) to the west. All the heated rooms shared a single heating system. The apodyterium was so large that people probably also exercised there. The bathhouse was later expanded in the late Flavian or Trajanic period, and a surrounding wall was built creating a complex four times larger than the original site, at around 2000 m2. The bathhouse existed for at least a century and a half in its extended form.

View on the hypocaust of the Baths. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

The whole area is thoroughly excavated and makes part of the wonderful Thermenmuseum. The museum offers some useful digital and 3D reconstructions and hosts many archaeological finds, including very well preserved Gallo-roman kiln.

Reconstruction of the Bath’s interiors. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

Gallo-roman kiln. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

Tongeren – Atuatuca Tungrorum

Some 15 kilometres distance to the west of Maastricht is the town of Tongeren – Atuatuca Tungrorum. Occupying a hilltop overlooking the surrounding countryside, Atuatuca was originally a fortress belonging to a tribe of the same name. During the Roman conquest of the area, Julius Caesar established a winter camp on the hilltop, only for his legionaries to be massacred there by the Eburones under their leader Amborix in 54 BC. This was the most severe defeat suffered by the Roman legions during the entire conquest of Gaul.

Reconstruction of the Atuatuca Tungrorumin the Gallo-roman museum of the city. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album with Tongeren pics.

Caesar then wiped out the Eburones and Augustus subsequently handed the territory over to the Germanic Tungri tribe. There was a continuing military presence at the fort, which led to the growth of a civilian settlement alongside. Tongeren became an impressive town with walls of the 2nd century up to 4500 metres in length, though reduced to 2800 metres in the 4th century.

Roman walls of Tongeren. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album with Tongeren pics.

The city became an important commercial center, sending supplies to the frontier on the Rhine, and it continued to prosper even after the military withdrew. The exact location of the forum is still uncertain, but remains – or rather a geometrical reconstruction – of a large temple dating to the late first century AD can be visited.

Reconstruction of the temple of Tongeren in the Gallo-Roman museum. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album with Tongeren pics.

A statue of Amborix – leader of Eburones – stands in the centre of the modern city, and substantial stretches of the Roman walls have survived to the north and west.

Amborix statue in the center of Tongren. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album with Tongeren pics.

Finds from the Roman period are displayed in the excellent Gallo-Roman Museum of Tongres.

Gallo-Roman Museum of Tongres

The Gallo-Romeins Museum of Tongeren was established in 1954 and received its modern building in 1994. The wonderful permanent exhibition starts with the Neanderthals, but the major part is dedicated to the Gallo-Roman culture until the beginning of the Christianity.

Museum room with a mosaic floor and frescoes. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

Reconstruction of a Gallo-roman funerary scene. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

Early 4th century grave with wall painting. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

The painting on the grave wall. The dove possibly refers to a Christian motif. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

Reconstruction of the Tongeren necropolis in 150 AD. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

Recently, the Museum hosted an exhibition called “Face to face with the Romans” (Oog in oog met de Romeinen). This excellent exhibition was dedicated to Romans themselves: young and old, rich and poor, and it was wonderfully illustrated by some 250 pieces from the British Museum. You can find a detailed TimeTravelRome photo album from this exhibition following this link.

Sculpted head of the future Emperor Augustus Marble 43-31 BC Rome. Seen at the “Face to face with the Romans” exhibition. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album with exhibition pics.

Votive marble panel dedicated by the priestess Claudia Ageta to the goddess Demeter Around 170 AD. Seen at the “Face to face with the Romans” exhibition. Source: TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album with exhibition pics.

Liege – Archéoforum

Depending on the City of Tongres, at the beginning of its Roman period of history, Liège had just a few buildings located on the left bank of the river. It was a villa and it included barns, attics, workshops and stables. In the center, there was an imposing residential building 54 m long by 35 m wide – the only one that has been found to date. It was abandoned in the 4th century and reoccupied again in the 6-7th centuries. Remains of the villa and of the Baths’ hypocacaust can be seen in the Archéoforum of Liège – a large underground archaeological exhibition located under the square Saint-Lambert.

Ancient archaeological remain in the Archéoforum of Liège. Source : TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

The Roman building in the Place Saint-Lambert was likely integrated into the Civitas Tungrorum traffic network. The site has a natural access route to the plateau (the Légia) and is located 4 km upstream from the river crossing via the Tongeren-Trier route. It is possible that the Roman villa under the square Saint-Lambert belonged to a rich vineyard owner or a trader, whose prosperity was related to the proximity of the Via Belgica.

Hypocacaust in the the Archéoforum of Liège. Source : TimeTravelRome. Link to the full album.

Via Belgica on the TimeTravelRome mobile app

TimeTravelRome mobile app offer a unique feature: it maps all Roman roads. For all most important roads (they appear in green) their name can also be displayed – one has juste to click on the road. All major cities on the Via Belgica, as well as other Roman Roads are featured in the app and a description of all main sites is provided.

Sources

• Henrard Denis, van Der Sloot Pierre, Léotard Jean-Marc, « La villa de la place Saint-Lambert à Liège (Belgique) : nouvel état des connaissances », Revue du Nord, 2008/5 (N° 378), p. 157-174.
• Site of the Thermes Museum in Heerlen : www.thermenmuseum.nl/en
• “Roman bathing in Coriovallum –  The thermae of Heerlen revisited” by K. Jeneson and W.K. Vos (eds.). Nederlandse Archeologische Rapporten nr. 65. Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands, Amersfoort, 2020.
• “A Roman Puzzle. Trying to find the Via Belgica with GIS”. J. Verhagen, C. Jeneson. Published 2012.
• “Giving a future to a part of Roman Maastricht: the Hotel Derlon museum cellar”. T. Panhuysen. Published 2010
• “A shorter history of Maastricht: Maastricht from Roman times to the Middle Ages”. Publication of the University of Amsterdam. 2009.

– Emperor Augustus

Julia Augusti filia, or Julia the Elder, daughter of the Emperor Augustus, was a fascinating wild card in an era and culture where the ideal woman was quiet, steadfast, and even-tempered. Her personality was neither uniquely good nor bad, and like many famous individuals of the ancient world, reflected the innate complexities of human nature. She was kind, empathetic, intelligent, and quick-witted, while at the same time a wild partier, adulterer, and possibly even guilty of plotting patricide against a father who, despite his many flaws in parenting, loved her dearly.

Despite his devotion, accusations of her conspiracy finally forced Augustus to face all of her misdeeds. The charges would have meant execution of any other citizen, but unable to order the death of his daughter, Augustus instead exiled her to isolation in an ornate villa on the island of Pandataria. She remained under nominal house arrest until her own death, a short time after the passing of her father. Perhaps most captivating is how closely the difficult relationship between father and daughter and its results parallel modern situations, albeit amplified.

Young Julia

Augustus left his first wife, Scribonia, in 39 B.C., the very day that Julia was born, saying that he was “unable to put up with her shrewish disposition.” He took Julia away as soon as she could leave her mother, and Julia instead grew up in the house of her stepmother, Livia. She was raised in luxury and provided with the very best teachers, and subsequently she developed a deep love of literature and culture. She had a sharp mind and a quick tongue. Yet despite all the comforts of her childhood, it was also a strict and sheltered one. Augustus insisted that everything she said and did be proper, nothing that she would be ashamed to have written in the household records. He also carefully restricted their interaction with strangers. One of his letters includes an admonishment to Lucius Vinicius, “a young man of good position and character: “You have acted presumptuously in coming to Baiae to call on my daughter.”

She had been betrothed at the age of two to Mark Antony’s then ten year old son, though the later civil wars dissolved that arrangement. Still, her marriage was entirely at the will and needs of her father, and at fourteen she was wed for the first time to her cousin, Marcus Claudius Marcellus. Julia’s father was unable to attend the wedding, having fallen ill on a trip to the provinces, and instead he asked his right hand man, Marcus Agrippa, to oversee the ceremony. Marcellus was likely being groomed as a possible heir. Augustus’s only other possible successor, Agrippa, was the same age as the princeps, and a younger candidate was needed.

Many Marriages

Augustus undoubtedly also hoped that Marcellus and Julia would produce sons that he could then adopt, ensuring the future of their dynasty. Unfortunately, after only two years of marriage, Marcellus died childless. Two years later, Augustus married Julia, now eighteen years old, to Agrippa. Agrippa was around twenty-five years older than Julia, making the marriage a much more typical one than her match with Marcellus, who was very similar to her in age. Agrippa was also frequently away. Being Augustus’s top general, he was sent on campaigns in all corners of the provinces to maintain peace in the budding empire.

It was during this time that Julia began to act out. She apparently carried on several adulterous relationships, the longest of which was an affair with her “persistent paramour” Sempronius Gracchus. She is also said to have taken Iullus Antonius, second son of Mark Antony and brother of her first betrothed, as a lover, as well as lusting after Tiberius, her stepbrother. Despite her dalliances, she and Agrippa had five children together. Marcobius Theodosius recorded that on one occasion, when she was teased about the fact that it was surprising that all of her children looked like Agrippa, she quickly shot back ““I take on a passenger only when the ship’s hold is full.”

Julia even traveled extensively with Agrippa, who appears to have held affection for her despite their arranged marriage. He flew into a rage when Julia almost drown in Ilium, and laid a heavy fine on the citizens for carelessness. Only his good friend Herod had the nerve to approach him, and Agrippa listened to the plea and withdrew the fine.

Exiled to Pandataria

Shortly after returning to Italy, Julia once again became pregnant, and Agrippa fell desperately ill. He died at their villa in Campania. Julia named her son Marcus Agrippa Postumus in honor of his father. By this time, Augustus was becoming desperate for an heir. He had adopted Julia and Agrippa’s first two sons, Gaius and Lucius, but they were still quite young. Agrippa had returned to the position of expected heir after the death of Marcellus, and now he too was gone. Augustus was not a young man, and he needed an heir old enough to be able to run Rome. He quickly adopted his stepson Tiberius and immediately married Julia to him.

Despite her reported interest in Tiberius as a young girl, Julia and Tiberus’s marriage was a disaster from the outset. Tiberius had been deeply in love with his first wife, Vispania Agrippina, whom he was forced to divorce in order to marry Julia. He was also not impressed with Julia’s questionable sexual morality. Meanwhile Julia had barely finished mourning Agrippa, and considered Tiberius beneath her. They conceived one child who died as an infant and the couple separated soon after. According to the histories, Julia descended into even greater depravities at this point, and when her excesses were brought before Augustus, along with an accusation that she had joined a plot against him, he was finally forced to face the issue. Julia was banished to Pandataria, accompanied voluntarily by her mother.

Death of Julia

“After Julia was banished, he denied her the use of wine and every form of luxury, and would not allow any man, bond or free, to come near her without his permission, and then not without being informed of his stature, complexion, and even of any marks or scars upon his body.” It was not until five years later that Augustus allowed Julia to return to the mainland and to live in a villa at Rhegium. However, he could not be convinced to forgive her, despite the fact that the Roman people several times interceded on her behalf. Instead, he bitterly stated in the open assembly that if they continued to press for her release, then he “called upon the gods to curse them with like daughters and like wives.” Augustus wrote a clause into his will forbidding Julia to be buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus.

After Augustus’s death in August of 14 A.D., power passed to Tiberius. Practically at the same time as the princeps death, Agrippa Postumus was killed by a centurion named Gaius Sallustius Crispus, who then reported to Tiberius that “his orders were carried out.” Tiberius fiercely insisted that he had no involvement in the execution, yet his only real rival was now eliminated. Julia also did not survive to the end of the year. Tiberius refused to provide for her, and left her imprisoned in her villa to slowly die of destitution and possibly even starvation. 

What to See in Punta Eolo now ?

The Villa Giulia a Punta Eolo was the location on the island of Pandataria (now Ventotene) to which the emperor Augustus banished his daughter Julia the Elder in 2 B.C. Her abode on the island was a large and luxurious villa, complete with its own bath complex. It had been constructed originally as a summer residence for the emperor himself. The foundations of the villa have been excavated and the bath complex in particular is well preserved. The Museum of Ventotene also holds a number of artifacts excavated from the villa.

Julia was not the only high-ranking personage to be banished to the villa. Subsequently, in 29 AD, it accommodated Augustus’s granddaughter Agrippina after she was banished by Tiberius. She died there, allegedly starved to death, in 33 AD. Her son, the emperor Caligula, brought her remains reverently back to Rome and went on to exile his sister Julia Livilla to the villa. Julia Livilla was banished to Pandataria for a second time in 41 AD, this time on the orders of her uncle, the emperor Claudius. She too is said to have been starved to death here. Also incarcerated and then executed on Pandataria was Nero’s first wife, Claudia Ottavia.

Pandataria (Punta Eolo) on Timetravelrome App:

Sources: Cassius Dio, Roman History; Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Tacitus, The Annals; Pliny the Elder, Natural History; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History; Macrobius, Saturnalia.

Author: Marian Vermeulen for Timetravelrome

Header image: Ventotene (island), photo by Sailko licensed under CC BY 3.0

Virgil, Aeneid. Book VIII (translation by A.S. Kline)

Agrippa is one of the greatest men of Ancient Rome. His lifetime accomplishments were spectacular and his heritage is incredibly rich even two thousand years after his death. However, only a few Roman coins issued during his lifetime bear his portrait or name. This is due to the role that money played at the time of the Roman Empire. In addition to being a means of payment, coins were also a form of propaganda. As this centered around the person of Octavian, and later his family, other subjects or persons, with rare exceptions, had no place on Rome’s coins.

Yet numerous coins were dedicated to Agrippa or bear his name. Below are some of these coins, each linked to a relevant ancient roman place or monument.     

Crocodile on coins from Nîmes

The founding of Nîmes in southern Gaul goes back to the sixth century BC. At this time, Volcae Arecomici, a Celtic tribe, settled there around a spring and built a sanctuary. In 120 BC, the Volcae accepted the Roman legions without resistance, eventually giving birth to the town of Nemausa.

The development of the city surged during the imperial times when the city became a roman colony. After the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, marking the victory of Octavian and Agrippa over the fleets of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra, Octavian demobilized some of his legions and many veterans came to settle in Nîmes. The city changed status in 24 BC, becoming a Roman colony under the name of “Colonia Augusta Nemausus.” The very important minting that started from 27 BC shows the commercial dynamism of the city which became one of the richest in the region.

The famous dupondius struck in Nemausus starting in 27 BC depicts back-to-back heads of Augustus and Agrippa and legend IMP DIVI F on the obverse, and a crocodile chained to a palm, flanked by legend COL NEM, on the reverse. Agrippa and Augustus appear together on these coins because they were the patrons of Nîmes. Agrippa is also believed to be the architect of Nîmes’ main architectural features. On the reverse of the coin, the crocodile chained to a palm tree symbolizes Egypt’s submission to Rome.

The palm is an attribute of Apollo, the “patron” god of Octavian, a sanctuary in Apollo was also located opposite the site of the Battle of Actium. Many of these coins have also an abbreviation P.P. on them (as on the coin below – beside Augustus and Agrippa’s portraits). The abbreviation is believed to mean “Patronus Parentes” reflecting the role that Augustus and Agrippa jointly played in the prosperity of the colony. 

Dolphins on coins from Nicopolis

Besides Nîmes, numerous cities and towns in Italy, Spain, Greece, and throughout the East dedicated statues to Agrippa, selected him as patron, and bestowed honorary offices upon him (“Marcus Agrippa. A Biography”, Meyer Reinhold pp. 102-103).

One of such cities was Nikopolis (var: Nicopolis) in Epirus. Named as the “City of Victory,” Augustus founded Nikopolis to “extend the fame of his victory at Actium and to perpetrate its memory” (Suetonius, Aug. 18,2). The foundation of Nikopolis was not dictated solely by the desire to commemorate the victory. It also served a strategic purpose guarding the narrowest point of the peninsula which closes the Gulf of Arta.

Bronze coins minted there depict Agrippa’s bare head on the obverse, while the reverse shows a dolphin entwined around a trident. The reverse of the coin is a clear allusion to the naval victories of Agrippa at Actium. Sea-related symbols represent a recurring pattern in Agrippa heritage. The colossal statue in Venice shows Agrippa leaning on a dolphin and dolphins. Cockle-shells, and tridents decorated the friezes of his Baths in Rome. Agrippa even installed seven bronze dolphins to mark laps for the charioteers on the Circus Maximus.

Empty seat on Rostra

The Rostrum that can be seen today was installed on its current location by Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Then, around 29 BC, Augustus modified the structure. He extended the curved platform backwards to form a rectangle. Augustus also built a second rostrum in 29 BC in front of the Temple of Caesar. This structure also decorated with the prows of galleys captured during the great naval Battle of Actium. During this battle, Augustus’s fleet destroyed the forces of Marc Antony and Cleopatra. His victory cleared the way to his absolute power.

It is possible that coin below depicts this second rostrum as it then appeared. Indeed, this denarius was struck in 13 BC, after the second rostrum was built and only three prows can be seen here, while the “old” rostrum counted six. In addition, the coin is related to Agrippa, who was instrumental in the Actium victory. It is believed that the coin commemorates the renewal of Agrippa’s appointment as tribune (his first appointment was in the 18 BC) together with Augustus, but the whole series of coins struck in 13 BC suggests that the ambition was even broader: Agrippa was positioned on these coins as Octavian’s heir.   

Coins with the portrait of Augustus on one side and Agrippa on the other were produced in the year of 13 BC under supervision of the same moneyer, C. Sulpicius Platorinus. Augustus and Agrippa appear bare-headed. Some other rarer issues, including an aureus (header photo), depict Agrippa wearing a combined mural & rostral crown which Augustus gave him.

Agrippa was Augustus’s heir apparent and these coins emphasized his role. Unfortunately he died prematurely the year after. The coin struck in 12 BC – one year after previous ones – shows an unoccupied tribunal seat. This coin honors in a visual and emotional way the absence of the closest and most trustworthy friend of Octavian – Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa…

What to See in Nîmes now ?

Modern-day Nimes offers a remarkably rich array of ancient Roman architecture. The amphitheater near the heart of Nimes is one of the better preserved. It ranks as the seventh largest such structure from the ancient world. To the northwest of this theater, one will find the Maison Carée, a first-century temple originally dedicated to Augustus’ heirs Gaius and Lucius Caesar and recognized today as one of the best-preserved Roman temples outside of Rome itself. Those venturing out of the city can also find one of the best examples of ancient Roman engineering in the form of the aqueduct. The Pont du Gard, often associated with Nimes but situated roughly 30 kilometers away, has transversed the Gardon River since the first century CE. 

Nîmes on Timetravelrome App:

The app offers a description of all main Roman monuments that can be seen in today’s Nimes. They are located on the map and and a description is provided for each place.

Sources:

1/ « La formule P-P des as de Nemausus », Revue des Études Anciennes, 1940

2/ « Auguste et l’Asie Mineure », textes recueillis par Laurence Cavalier et autres. Ausonius Editions, 1997

3/ “The Coinage of Nicopolis”, Colin Kraay, The Numismatic Chronicle (1966-) Vol. 16, 1976.

4/ “Marcus Agrippa. A Biography”, Meyer Reinhold. Geneva, New York: The W. F. Humphreys Press, 1932.

Author: Timetravelrome

Header image: Aureus. Obv: Head of Augustus, wearing oak-wreath, right. Rev: Head of Agrippa, wearing combined mural and rostral crown, right. Moneyer: C Sulpicius Platorinus. Soirce: British Museum.

– Cassius Dio

Although ancient writers accepted the rumors that Augustus sent Agrippa away due to rising jealously between Agrippa and Marcellus, the nephew of Augustus, the long standing loyalty and esteem between the two men, from their earliest years together to the point of sharing a resting place, hardly seems to support that conclusion. In fact, it is far more reasonable to accept the modern speculation that Agrippa instead left Rome on an important, secret diplomatic mission. That the trust and affection between Augustus and Agrippa continued unchecked, even during Agrippa’s absence of Rome, can easily be seen in their actions, even as rumors claim otherwise.

Honoring Friends

Agrippa’s public projects in Rome were a great boon to the city, and constructed at his personal expense. Cassius Dio mentions that a number of important figures commissioned buildings in Rome, but often it was done ostentatiously, an attempt to bolster their own fame and glory with little thought to the structure’s overall use. In contrast, Agrippa consulted personally with Augustus to choose the projects that would most benefit Rome and its people. When completed, he did not “claim in the slightest degree a share in the glory of them, but used the honours which the emperor bestowed, not for personal gain or enjoyment, but for the benefit of the donor and of the public.”

In his design for the Pantheon, Agrippa greatly desired to name the structure after his good friend, and to place a statue of Augustus among those of the gods. Augustus diplomatically declined, and Agrippa finally agreed. Instead, he put a statue of Julius Caesar in the main chamber, and flanked the ante-room with a statue of Augustus and of himself. Cassius Dio again insists that “this was done, not out of any rivalry or ambition on Agrippa’s part to make himself equal to Augustus, but from his hearty loyalty to him and his constant zeal for the public good; hence Augustus, so far from censuring him for it, honoured him the more.” When Agrippa’s house on the Palatine Mount burned down, Augustus insisted that Agrippa move in with him and share his own extravagant home.

Powers of the Princeps

Where many rulers would fear to give a potential rival too much autonomy, particularly one as beloved by the people as Agrippa, Augustus lavishly bestowed authority to Agrippa, raising him to be the second most powerful man in Rome, and entrusted him with the highest of ceremonies. When Augustus fell ill just before the important marriage of his daughter Julia to his nephew, Marcellus, he asked Agrippa to hold the festival in his place. He pressed for a law which stated that whenever Agrippa was sent on business of the Republic, no-one held power greater than his.  In fact, Augustus eventually gave so much authority to Agrippa that Agrippa was effectively at the same level as the princeps. The only difference in their powers being that Augustus was granted tribunicia potestas for life, while that power was renewed every five years for Agrippa.

Agrippa had long been Augustus’s presumed heir. When the princeps had fallen desperately ill and was not expected to survive, he sorted his affairs in preparation for his death, and handed his ring to Agrippa. After the death of Marcellus, Augustus requested that Agrippa divorce his own wife and marry Julia, thus tying Agrippa even closer as his son-in-law. Agrippa agreed. However, having an heir that is the same age as his predecessor presents obvious disadvantages. As a result, when Julia gave birth to two sons, Gaius and Lucius, Augustus immediately adopted them and appointed them as his official heirs.

Missed Farewell

Agrippa remained Augustus’s steadfast general during this period, taking on campaigns in Sicily, Gaul, Spain, Syria, and Pannonia. He even settled unrest and riots in Rome while Augustus was away. In all these successes, he remained, according to all sources, humble and modest. He refused triumphs from Augustus on multiple occasions, and did not engage in the practice of sending boastful reports of his exploits back to Rome. It was on his return from the Pannonia campaign in 12 B.C. that disaster fell. Upon reaching the region of Campania, quite possibly in the villa at Boscoreale that later passed to his son, Agrippa Postumus, Agrippa became seriously ill. Messengers hurried to Athens, where Augustus was overseeing the prestigious Panathenaic Festival. Augustus immediately abandoned his duties overseeing the games and rushed to Campania, but he was too late to bid his friend farewell.

Devastated, Augustus brought Agrippa’s body back to Rome and insisted that he lie in state in the Forum. On the day of the funeral, he delivered the funeral oration himself, and arranged a procession that was very similar to his plans for his own funeral. Even though Agrippa owned a burial site in the Campus Martius, Augustus laid Agrippa’s body to rest in his own family mausoleum. He felt the loss for a long time, spending over a month in mourning and continuing to issue honors and memorials for his friend. Several coins depicting Agrippa were struck at this time, and Augustus named Julia’s third son after his deceased father.  He personally oversaw the education and upbringing of all of Agrippa’s children as if they were his own, though tragically he outlived both Gaius and Lucius.

Agrippa’s Legacy

Agrippa is remembered fondly by all of the ancient historians who wrote of him. He is lauded as a loyal subordinate to Augustus as well as being hugely beloved of the Roman people. In his will, he left his public buildings, baths, and gardens to the people of Rome, along with a generous endowment to ensure that his baths would remain free for use. He left most of his estates to Augustus, most of which the emperor turned over to the state, as well as giving out a gift, as requested by Agrippa, of four hundred sesterces* to each citizen.

Agrippa was a writer and a geographer. Among his works he left behind an autobiography, which sadly has yet to be found, and also a comprehensive chart of the Roman Empire, which Augustus had engraved in marble and placed on a colonnade. Agrippa is the one who established the official distance of a Roman foot, using his own foot size as the standard, and his name adorns the Via Agrippa, a network of roads throughout Gaul whose construction he commissioned.

He is remembered as having “used the friendship of Augustus with a view to the greatest advantage both of the emperor himself and of the commonwealth. For the more he surpassed others in excellence, the more inferior he kept himself of his own free will to the emperor; and while he devoted all the wisdom and valour he himself possessed to the highest interests of Augustus, he lavished all the honour and influence he received from him upon benefactions to others.” 

*Though calculating the value of the sesterce is a difficult proposition, and various valuations place it anywhere from 50 cents to 50 dollars, calculations based on relative labor rates suggest that one interpretation of the amount given in Agrippa’s will would equal about 200 US Dollars or 180 Euros.

What to See in Boscoreale now ?

The only villa you can visit today is the Villa Regina, completely restored in 1991. Though dating to the first century BC, the villa was expanded twice the following century, first during the Augustan Age then during the Julio-Claudian period. Unlike the other villas found in the area, Villa Regina was less a luxurious country retreat and more a well-furnished, comfortable working farm: as evidenced by the remains of a wine press, a subterranean wine cellar and vast amounts of pottery. Finds from the other villas, including the ornate Villa of Agrippa Postumus, are spread out across the Metropolitan Museum of New York, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum of Naples and the Louvre, just to name a few. Or, more locally, the Antiquarium of Boscoreale is home to some interesting artefacts and reproductions.

Boscoreale on Timetravelrome App:

Sources: Cassius Dio, Roman History; Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Tacitus, Annals

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Villa Regina, Boscoreale. Photo b Norbert Nagel . Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0

– Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews

In 23 B.C., a series of curious events took place. Despite their long and close friendship, Octavian, now known as Augustus, sent Agrippa away to govern the eastern province of Syria. It was an assignment that to some seemed tantamount to a gentle exile. Agrippa departed at once, but rather than proceeding to Syria, he sent his top lieutenant ahead while he stopped in Mytilene, staying there for almost two years and governing Syria by proxy. Was there some sort of tension between the two old friends? Or was Agrippa sent on a secret mission to Mytilene as a representative of his emperor?

Rumors of Contention

The Roman rumor mill was quick to make assumptions when Agrippa left the city. Augustus’s young nephew Marcellus had been climbing in his uncle’s esteem, with Augustus seeming to groom the young man as his heir. The gossips whispered that Agrippa and Marcellus were not on friendly terms, and that Augustus, fearing that harsh words would arise between them, sent Agrippa away. However, there are a number of inconsistencies and questions associated with this version of events. Both Tacitus and Suetonius say that Agrippa left of his own free will, possibly in an attempt not to obstruct the growth of Marcellus’s career, or possibly in jealousy that Augustus seemed to be showing preference to the young man over Agrippa.

The jealously theory cannot easily hold water. Agrippa had long been Augustus’s closest friend, yet never showed an interest in politically overtaking his friend. Additionally, the two men were the same age, and therefore Agrippa as heir was not a particularly safe choice for Rome. Historian Velleius Paterculus, the earliest historian to write of this, expressly names the rumors of contention as just that, mere rumors.  Recently, historians have begun to suspect that Agrippa was not exiled gently from Rome, but rather sent on a secret diplomatic mission under the pretext of conflict in the royal family. Josephus supports this theory, for he says nothing of the rumors, but rather claims that Agrippa was sent by Augustus to serve as the vice-regent of the eastern provinces, bearing proconsular power over the entire empire, making him effectively only subservient to Augustus himself.

The Mission at Mytilene

So that perhaps answers why Agrippa wasn’t sent to Mytilene, but still leaves the question as to what his secret mission might have been. It can only be answered with deductive speculation, but the timing of certain negotiations presents one possible answer. Two important Romans had made failed attempts to conquer the Parthians. Both Crassus and Antony suffered humiliating defeats in their campaigns, and the Parthians still held the spoils, and worse, the standards, of three Roman armies. The loss of a unit standard was a major disgrace for the Romans, both individually and collectively, and the empire chaffed to recover them.

However, a protracted war with the Parthians, who had already proved themselves to be dangerous enemies, was not something Augustus felt he could safely begin. He remained frustrated, unable to retrieve the standards, until a fortunate opportunity arose. A man named Tiridates had staged a successful coup against the Parthian king and taken the throne, only to be later expelled by the rightful king. In the chaos of the overthrow, Tiridates had managed to abduct the youngest son of King Phraates, and now he brought the boy to Augustus, offering him as a valuable hostage as a sign of goodwill. 

Here lies the possible answer to Agrippa’s mission. Augustus could hardly make the negotiation himself, for it would be a severe blow to his honor to be seen to be buying success. The perfect proxy was Agrippa, closest friend to the princeps, invested with extraordinary powers and dispatched to the east with numerous legates to run as messengers between his strategic, but still seemingly innocuous, base of operations at Mytilene and the Parthian court.

Meetings at Mytilene

Indeed, late in 23 B.C., Parthian envoys arrived in Rome to request the return of the king’s son and the surrender of Tiridates. Augustus would not hand over his guest, but he agreed to return the boy in exchange for the standards and Roman soldiers still held as prisoners of Parthia. All this time, Agrippa stayed quietly in Mytilene, ignoring the rumors of his dismissal and quietly serving as the ultimate right-hand man as he had always done.

 During his time on Mytilene, Agrippa was also cultivating yet another uniquely close friendship that would last his lifetime. Shortly after he settled on Mytilene, Herod the Great, King of Judea, came to call upon Agrippa and pay his respects. It is unclear whether the two had met previously, but may have encountered one another when Herod came before Augustus in 40 B.C. Now, visiting in the idyllic setting of Mytilene, the two men quickly developed a mutual respect and affection.

Though the sources do not record details of their interactions, it is not difficult to guess. Both men maintained a passion for building projects, and both had spent the last several years engaged in architectural projects and civic improvements. Herod was building a new city, named Sebaste, and had plans for work on Jerusalem and Caesarea. Herod returned from Mytilene with a number of ideas from Agrippa. Within a year he began a complete re-construction of the sewer system at Caesarea, and soon began the construction of Roman style aqueducts throughout Syria and Judea. The harbor that he built at Sebaste bears more than a passing resemblance to works done by Agrippa, such as the harbor of Portus Julius.

A Fast Friendship

Agrippa was recalled to Rome by Augustus in 21 B.C., and did not see Herod again for another six years. However, the friendship was solidly established. On one occasion, a group of representatives from the city of Gadara came to Agrippa to bring charges against Herod. Agrippa refused to even listen to them, and instead sent them to Herod in chains. He was also a staunch supporter of the rights of the Jewish client king and his subjects.

In 15 B.C., Herod invited Agrippa to join him in Judea, and he entertained his friend royally, as well as providing him with a personal tour of the kingdom, focusing on the building projects they had previously discussed and showing the many ways he had embraced Roman culture and structure. Agrippa was also shown the glory of Jerusalem, and observed the ceremonies at the Jewish Temple. He was greatly impressed, and responded with a gesture of his own, making a sacrifice to the god of Israel and providing a feast for the citizens, establishing himself firmly in their good graces as well.

The following year, when Agrippa was sent on an expedition to the Kimmerian Bosporos, Herod voluntarily joined him, surprising Agrippa, who was more than pleased to have him along. Herod served as Agrippa’s closest advisor and confidant on the campaign. They met one last time at Mytilene, when Herod entrusted Agrippa with taking his son to be educated in Rome. The friendship was definitely a genuine one, and had a lasting effect on Herod, for after the death of Agrippa, Herod renamed a city in his friend’s honor, and the name Agrippa was inserted into his family dynasty.

What to See in Mytilene now ?

The most notable archaeological remain to be seen in Mytilene is the ancient theatre. The almost perfectly circular orchestra indicates that this is one of the oldest theatres in Greece. It was believed, in antiquity, to have been so beautiful that this was the model upon which Pompey the Great based the theatre he built in Rome in the 1st century B.C., the first permanent theatre in Rome. Also of note are the remains of the Roman aqueduct. Smaller finds from the city may be seen at the Archaeological Museum, including the famous late Roman mosaic floor from the so-called “House of Menander”, which depicts scenes from the 4th century B.C. Athenian playwright.

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Sources: Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews; Nicholas of Damascus, Autobiography; Cassius Dio, Roman History; Tacitus, Annals; Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History; David Magie Jr., “The Mission of Agrippa to the Orient in 23 B.C.,” in Classical Philology Vol. 3, No. 2 (Apr., 1908), pp. 145-152 – available on JSTOR.

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Mytilene castle by ProtecTOR licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

Though Agrippa’s works could not fix every issue with the city, his term as aedile was immensely successful, and he left the city in significantly better shape than he found it. In addition to cleaning and repairing the streets and sewers, which included the Cloaca Maxima, the largest sewer line of the city, Agrippa also commissioned and funded many public structures. Here are five of Agrippa’s top building projects as aedile of Rome.  Even though some of these buildings have left few remains to see today, they are still worth acknowledging in honor of the man that built them.

5. Baths of Agrippa

According to Cassius Dio, Agrippa first began work on the city’s first public hot water baths in 25 B.C., the same year that he started the Pantheon. The baths were adorned with beautiful statues and works of art. One that was of particular note was a wondrous statue, Lysippus’s Apoxyomenos. It stood outside the front of the bathing complex until Emperor Tiberius—who maintained a deep appreciation for the arts—loved the statue so much he had it moved to his bedroom, substituting the original with a copy. Such was the public’s indignation at this, however, that they staged a protest in one of the city’s theatres, forcing the reluctant emperor to return it.

The baths suffered damage during the reign of the Emperor Titus in the fire of 80 A.D., but it was not repaired until Hadrian’s rule some decades later. The last recorded restoration occurred under the joint reign of Constantius II and Constans in 345 A.D. All that remains of Agrippa’s magnificent 90 by 120 metre bath complex, which occupied the area between Corso Vittorio Emanuele and Via di Santa Chiara, is an imposing section of wall. This once made up the complex’s large semi-circular hall, which supported a large dome with a diameter of 23 metres. Made from brick, it doesn’t belong to Agrippa’s original baths of the first century BC but dates to a later, probably Severan restoration. An attempt to reconstruct the plan of then original Bath complex can be fund on the website of the American Academy in Rome.

4. Saepta Julia

Located in the Campus Martius next to the Pantheon, the Saepta were originally conceived by Julius Caesar to replace an older structure called the Ovile, where the comitia tributa gathered to cast votes. They were a huge four-sided portico built with marble covering an area of 310 x 210 meters and closed to the south by another building, the Diribitorium, where public officials counted the votes. The architectural complex was actually completed and dedicated to Augustus by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in 26 B.C.

The entrance, on the northern end, was aligned with those of the Pantheon to the left and of the Iseum to the right, where the Aqua Virgo aqueduct reached its destination. Because of the deep change underwent by the Republic after Augustus’ rise to power, the Saepta soon lost their political function becoming a marketplace and hosting gladiatorial games or venationes. In the walkways of the colonnades, famous paintings and statues were also displayed. The Saepta were damaged by a fire in 80 AD and then restored under Domitian and Hadrian. Today, just the brick foundations of the western side of the complex (the porticus Argonautorum) remain visible in “via della Minerva” next to the Pantheon.

3. Basilica of Neptune

Built in 25 B.C. to commemorate his and Augustus’s naval victories against Sextus Pompey and Mark Antony, the basilica stood between the Pantheon and (later) the Temple of Hadrian. The year after Vesuvius’s eruption, it fell victim to the fire of 80 AD—two successive disasters that nearly drove the incumbent emperor Titus to take his own life.

In its day, the Basilica of Neptune was a beautiful-looking building, furnished, Cassius Dio tells us, with a magnificent painting of the Argonauts. Today, all that remains of the basilica are the vague vestiges that protrude out of the brick wall behind the Pantheon. Stand on the Via della Palombela and you can see two of its Corinthian columns and a number of the basilica’s niches. Between the columns is the basilica’s main apse, and above the left column is a frieze on which—if you squint your eyes—you can just about make out the relief of two dolphins.

2. Aqua Julia

Built by Marcus Agrippa in 33 BC, the Aqua Iulia derived its name from the Julian lineage of his princeps and patron, Augustus. Agrippa implemented a remarkable constructional project aimed at revolutionising Rome’s water supply and modernising it so it was up to the standards of Augustus’s “city of marble.”  Agrippa’s Aqua Iulia shared its source (in Tusculum, near the Via Latina’s twelfth milestone at the Ponte degli Squarciarelli) with the Aqua Tepula. And it shared its course through the city of Rome with the Aqua Marcia. The Aqua Iulia ran for around 14 miles from its source to its main terminus near the Porta Viminalis.

The most impressive remains of the Aqua Iulia can be found at Porta Maggiore and Piazzale Labicano. Each of the three levels of the arched section shows the conduit of one of the aqueducts. Water from the Aqua Marcia (144 BC) flowed along the bottom; water from the Aqua Tepua (125 BC) flowed along the middle; and water from the Aqua Iulia flowed along the top. It made sense: because the water travelled the same course it was simpler to reuse the arches of the original Aqua Marcia.

1. The Pantheon

The original Pantheon was built by Marcus Agrippa, sometime after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Even in antiquity there was some controversy around its name. Literally meaning, “honour all gods” in Greek (παν θεον), we know that Agrippa’s building did indeed display the statues of many gods, including those of Mars and Venus. However, the third century historian Cassius Dio also suggests that it could have been given its name because the temple’s iconic vaulted roof resembled the heavens.

The Pantheon’s attribution to Agrippa is misleading though. Despite the inscription that greets you on the front of the temple—M[arcus] Agrippa L[ucii] f[ilius] co[n]s[ul] tertium fecit (Marcus Agrippa built this)—what stands today is not the original Pantheon. Agrippa’s Pantheon was destroyed in the fire of 80 AD (some 37 years before Hadrian ascended to the throne) and anything that survives is most likely subsumed within the current building. Hadrian rebuilt it, but chose to play modest and kept the old inscription. The emperor famously executed the Pantheon’s Greek architect, Apollodorus of Damascus, over an argument about the structure.

The exterior façade and vaulted ceiling are the only relics of the Pantheon’s ancient past. That said, having mysteriously survived the barbarian raids that proved lethal for the city’s other architectural legacy, the Pantheon is Ancient Rome’s best-preserved monument. The Christians transformed it into a Church in 609 and it still functions as one: St Mary of the Martyrs. It’s the final resting place of Italian kings, poets and the artist Raphael, and 2,000 years after its construction the Pantheon can still claim to have the world’s largest unsupported Dome.

Agrippa buildings on Timetravelrome App:

All buildings described above are precisely mapped by the Timetravelrome app on the map of Rome, alongside 190 other Roman monuments. Each monument is provided with an up-to-date description.

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Il Pantheon di sera by Alessio Nastro Siniscalchi. Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.5 it.

Trapped in Greece

Antony had been enjoying his rule and his lavish lifestyle from the ancient city of Alexandria in Egypt. He had also been enjoying the attentions of Cleopatra, Egypt’s queen, despite his previous marriage to Octavian’s sister. Octavian used Antony’s dalliances to great advantage back in Rome, vilifying Antony for his unfaithfulness. It helped his cause even further that Octavia remained the picture of a noble Roman wife, devotedly caring for her and Antony’s children even as Antony made plans to divorce her and marry his Egyptian queen. Antony’s devotion to Cleopatra proved much of his undoing. Octavian was able to convince most of the Senate that Antony intended to undermine the power of Rome and hand control to foreigners in the East.

As conflict became inevitable, Antony and Cleopatra moved their forces to Greece, positioning the main strength of their navy in the port of Actium. Moving quickly, Octavian moved his forces by ship across the Adriatic Sea to attack Antony in Greece. Landing much of the army north of Actium, Octavian led his soldiers to cut off Antony and Cleopatra’s escape route by land. Meanwhile, Agrippa, commanding the navy, blockaded the port and cut off the supply lines. As the siege continued and Antony’s position grew worse, his soldiers deserted him in large numbers to Octavian. Eventually Cleopatra, who commanded her own ships in Antony’s fleet, convinced Antony and his generals that they should abandon the fortified positions in Greece and escape by boat back to Egypt. From there, they could launch a much stronger defense.

Escape from Actium

Octavian learned of their plan from deserters of Antony’s camp. As a result, he believed that he should allow Antony and Cleopatra to slip past but prepare to attack them from behind. This way, when he proved to their men that they intended to flee, he hoped to win over the soldiers to his cause with little fighting and bloodshed. However, he capitulated to the advice of Agrippa, who knew the ships better and feared that if Antony and Cleopatra came past in their lightest ships, the slower Roman vessels would not be able to catch them. As a result, Octavian prepared his vessels for a full confrontation. Soon after, Antony and Cleopatra led their fleet out of the port at Actium. However, they made no attempt to engage until Octavian and Agrippa moved to surround them. Forced reluctantly into battle, they advanced to meet their enemies.

“[Octavian’s] followers, having smaller and swifter ships, would dash forward and ram the enemy, being armoured on all sides to avoid receiving damage. If they sank a vessel, well and good; if not, they would back water before coming to grips, and would either ram the same vessels suddenly again, or would let those go and turn their attention to others…The enemy, on the other hand, tried to hit the approaching ships with dense showers of stones and arrows, and to cast iron grapnels upon their assailants. And in case they could reach them they got the better of it, but if they missed, their own boats would be pierced and would sink, or else in their endeavour to avoid this calamity they would waste time and lay themselves more open to attack by other ships.”

Flight and Defeat

In this way, the battle continued indecisive for a long while. Eventually, a sudden decision by Cleopatra began to turn the tide. Hoping for an escape, and with the wind turning favorably for them to sail toward Egypt, she unexpectedly turned her flagship from the battle and signaled for her followers to do the same. Thinking that they were running because they thought the battle lost, Antony also turned and fled. His remaining vessels grew confused and disheartened, and made to raise their sails and follow. Yet while they made these preparations, Octavian and Agrippa attacked, and the close quarters fighting turned brutal and bitter. When the battle still remained undecided, Octavian’s forces reluctantly turned to their final resort. Sending flaming arrows and missiles onto the enemy ships, they set them ablaze. 

“When the fire spread, the most terrible of fates came upon them. Some, and particularly the sailors, perished by the smoke before the flame so much as approached them, while others were roasted in the midst of it as though in ovens. Others were consumed in their armour when it became heated.  There were still others, who, before they should suffer such a death, or when they were half-burned, threw off their armour and were wounded by the shots which came from a distance, or again leaped into the sea and were drowned, or were struck by their opponents and sank. Those alone found a death that was tolerable, considering the sufferings which prevailed, who were killed by their fellows in return for the same service, or else killed themselves, before any such fate could befall them; for they not only had no tortures to endure.”

Founding of Nicopolis

Knowing they would not be able to catch the fleeing Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian and Agrippa made no immediate move to do so. Instead, they first celebrated their victory, establishing a festival in honor of the battle and also founding the city of Nicopolis on the site where Octavian had made his camp. The city prospered as a successful center for commerce and eventually became the capital of the Roman province of Epirus Vetus under Emperor Trajan. Nicopolis took damage from an earthquake in 375 B.C., and then at the hands of maurading Goths, Huns, and Vandals. It was restored by Emperor Justinian in the mid-6^th century, but eventually lost its economic pre-eminence to the city of Preveza in the Middle Ages.

What to See Here:

Modern visitors can enjoy a a wealth of archaeological remains of ancient Nicopolis. The site is referred to as Palaea Preveza (Old Preveza). It is bounded by the remains of the defensive fortifications. They are a combination of the original Augustan structures and the Justinianic rebuilds. To the west, there is an Odeion, the impressive remains of the city’s Hadrianic aqueduct, and a bath building. There are also the remains of the stadium which was the venue for the famous Actian Games. These are the games that the Emperor Nero was so victorious in during his tour of the Hellenistic provinces in the mid-1st century A.D. The remains of the villa of Manius Antoninus are notable for the splendour of the mosaics that have survived. The nearby Archaeological Museum of Nicopolis is rich in the finds from the site and worth a visit.

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Sources:  Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Cassius Dio, Roman History.

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Battle of Actium, a painting by Lorenzo A. Castro, now in Royal Museums Greenwich. The image is in the public domain.

Governor of Gaul

Soon after Agrippa retook Sipontum, Octavian and Antony settled an uneasy truce. As ruler of the western half of Rome, Octavian needed support from strong and capable subordinates. About a year after the treaty, he appointed Agrippa as governor of Transalpine Gaul, trusting his best friend and his best general to control the uprisings on the fractious borders of the Republic. His trust was not misplaced, for Agrippa put down the rebellious Aquitanian Gauls and then moved against the Germanic tribes. He became the second Roman general to cross the Rhine, preceded only by Julius Caesar himself.

While Agrippa had been enjoying stunning success in Gaul, Octavian was struggling. As he sailed south with a large fleet to meet his reinforcements, Sextus Pompey popped out of the port of Messana and fell on the Roman ships. Octavian ordered his ships to merely defend themselves, but after his own flagship was sunk and he was beached, his commanders turned to fight, fearing to die without even giving battle. They fared poorly and many of Octavian’s ships were lost before night finally brought an end to the battle.

However, even that was no reprieve, for a violent storm came up and dashed many of the ships to pieces on the shore. “Groans were heard throughout the entire night, and the cries of men running along the shore and calling their friends and relatives upon the sea by name, and mourning for them as lost when they could hear no responses; and anon the cries of others lifting their heads above the waves and beseeching aid from those on shore. Nothing could be done on either land or water.” Octavian lost over half of his men and ships.

Admiral of the Fleet

In desperate need of a military mind, Octavian recalled Agrippa from Gaul and appointed him consul for 37 B.C., even though Agrippa was still several years to young according to Roman law. He wanted to honor his friend with a Triumph, but Agrippa “would not celebrate the triumph, considering it disgraceful for him to make a display when Caesar had fared so poorly.” Agrippa dedicated himself to refitting the fleet with great enthusiasm. Realizing that Octavian’s forces were at a severe disadvantage as they did not have a safe port to weather in, his first order of business was to create one. In a brilliant move, he cut through the land that separated the Lucrine Lake from the sea near Baiae, creating both an outer harbor and an access point to the inland Lake Avernus. He named his new harbor Portus Julius in honor of Julius Caesar.

Within this new port, Agrippa oversaw the refitting of the damaged ships, the building of new ones, the training of new rowers and crews, and a number of new technological advancements in naval warfare. He helped design larger ships, created a new and improved grappling hook, and used the access to Lake Avernus to practice simulated naval warfare and further increase the abilities of his new sailors. One of his most innovative designs was called a Harpax. It was a catapult system that would hurl a piece of wood with an iron claw onto the enemy ship, after which the machine could winch the ship alongside for boarding. When the fleet emerged from the Portus Julius, it was a far superior force to the one that had been so humiliated in defeat a year earlier.

Victory at Mylae and Naulochus

In 36 B.C. Agrippa and Octavian took their new fleet to the open sea in search of Sextus Pompey. Agrippa encountered him just off the coast of Mylae. “They rushed against each other, the shouts of the men and the spray from the ships adding terror to the scene. The Pompeian ships were shorter and lighter, and better adapted to blockading and darting about. Those of Octavian were larger and heavier, and, consequently, slower, yet stronger to give blows and not so easily damaged….When they came to close quarters, being higher, [the Octavian ships] could hurl missiles down upon the enemy, and more easily throw the “ravens”and the grappling-irons.” Agrippa gave no quarter, and relentlessly pursued the Pompeian ships. His own commanders had to stop him from following them all the way onto the rocky shore and causing damage to his own ships.

After this decisive victory, Agrippa next came upon Sextus Pompey near Naulochus. In this second great battle, the fleets were evenly matched. Both forces consisted of about three hundred ships. Yet Agrippa fought brilliantly, blocking in Sextus Pompey’s more maneuverable ships with his heavier ones and using his new harpax system to great success. Only seventeen of Sextus Pompey’s ships escaped. One of these carried Sextus himself, who fled to the east. However, he was killed by Mark Antony a year later. Octavian honored Agrippa by presenting him with a golden crown decorated with miniature replicas of the prows of the enemy ships, “a decoration given to nobody before or since.”

What to See in Mylae now ?

Archaeological evidence of the town’s ancient history includes traces of its walls and of buildings going back to prehistoric times. The town’s castle was lies upon an earlier fortress dating back to the Roman period. An archaeological museum in the town preserves and displays artifacts from the area.

Mylae on Timetravelrome App:

Sources: Cassius Dio, Roman History; Appian, Civil Wars; Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History; Florus, Epitome of Roman History.

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Portrait of M. Vipsanius Agrippa of the Gabii type. Marble, ca. 25–24 BC. Now in Louvres. Photo by Jastrow. Licensed under CC BY 2.5

Appian, The Civil Wars

History of Sipious (Sipous)

Located on the western coast of Italy, ancient Sipious (Sipous) began as a Greek city. It was a colony founded by Diomedes according to legend, but likely established by Daunians, an Iapygian tribe consisting of a mixture of Illyrians from the west coast of Greece and Apulians from southern Italy, possibly as far as Crete. It fell to the Samnites during their expansions across Italy, but was retaken in 335 B.C. by the King of Epirus, who was the uncle of Alexander the Great.

Eventually, it came under the control of the Romans, and as early as 189 B.C. it became a colony of Rome. As a port city, Sipious enjoyed good trade, but otherwise remained largely unknown in the history books, with the exception of its position as a focal point in one of the conflicts between Octavian and Antony. In that siege, young Marcus Agrippa’s triumph at Sipious firmly established him as the right hand of the most powerful man in Rome.

Marcus Agrippa

Part of what makes Agrippa such a fascinating character is that his rise to the heights of power came not through family connections and noble background, but rather through his own proven abilities. Augustus particularly noted that fact in praise of Agrippa. In fact, Agrippa’s origins are very poorly understood, and he may have intentionally suppressed them during his lifetime. He certainly abandoned use of his family name, Vipsanius, a largely insignificant and obscure clan. His birth city is entirely unknown, but he is usually believed to have been born in either central or southern Italy, sometime around 64-62 B.C.

Pliny the Elder wrote that Agrippa had survived a difficult breech birth, and the cognomen Agrippa was a reference to this. He also stated that Agrippa had endured an unhappy childhood, though he recorded no more details. Agrippa had an older brother, Lucius Vipansius, and a sister, Vipsania Polla. During his education, Agrippa met a young man by the name of Gaius Octavius Thurinus, and through a mutual respect, the two formed a close friendship, together with a third boy, Quintus Salvidienus Rufus. Octavius was, of course, the nephew of Julius Caesar himself. During this time, Caesar was becoming increasingly interested in young Octavius. After seizing Rome, he helped the boy begin an early political career before his departure to pursue Pompey.

Bonds of Friendship

The close bond between Octavius and Agrippa is evident from the earliest years of their friendship. Agrippa’s brother Lucius joined Pompey’s army, and was among those captured in Caesar’s victory during the African Wars. Octavius resolved to help his friend, and “although Octavius had never yet asked anything of Caesar, he wanted to beg the prisoner off, but he hesitated because of modesty and at the same time because he saw how Caesar was disposed toward those who had been captured in that war. However, he made bold to ask it, and had his request granted. Thereupon he was very glad at having rescued a brother for his friend.”

Octavius had planned to accompany his uncle to the campaign in Spain at Caesar’s request, but at the last minute became severely ill. Yet as soon as he had barely recovered, just enough to travel, he set out for Spain over dangerous roads and even survived a shipwreck. Caesar was greatly pleased with his nephew’s initiative. Suetonius mentions only that Octavius traveled with “a very few companions,” and it is quite plausible that Agrippa was one of these, enduring danger and hardships alongside Octavius and forming yet a closer friendship.

He certainly remained very important to Octavius, for after the conclusion of the campaign, Caesar invited Octavius to travel with him in his own boat back to Rome.  “Out of affection, [Octavius] took three of his companions aboard, though he feared that Caesar would be angry when he found this out. However, the reverse was the case, for Caesar was pleased in that Octavius was fond of his comrades.” One of these three was Agrippa, and another was Salvidienus.

Right-Hand Man

Caesar seems to have gained an appreciation for Agrippa on this trip as well as Octavius, for upon arriving back in Rome, he sent the boys to Apollonia to continue their studies. All three were there when news arrived of Caesar’s assassination and Octavius’s adoption by Caesar. As was traditional in Rome, Octavius took the name Caesar and modified his previous nomen to Octavian. Agrippa and Salvidienus became Octavian’s top advisors in the tumultuous years that followed, though Salvidienus maintained the chief generalship. Agrippa was instrumental in gaining the loyalty of Roman soldiers, and both likely fought with Octavian at the Battle of Philippi in 42 B.C. Only a year later, Agrippa was a major player in the Perusine War when Antony’s wife and brother attempted to take control of Rome from Octavian.

Octavian next appointed Agrippa as urban praetor of Rome, giving him the power to organize Rome’s defense in Octavian’s absence. Agrippa successfully repulsed an attack by Sextus and pushed him to withdraw from Italy, but in August of 40 B.C. Sextus and Antony both individually invaded Italy. Antony managed to capture Sipious, and it was Agrippa who led the siege to retake the city. His decisive victory helped bring an end to that particular conflict. In the negotiations that followed, Antony, in an act of good-will, revealed to Octavian that Salvidienus had offered to betray Octavian and declare for Antony. Octavian ordered him executed, and from that time Agrippa was his closest friend and undisputed right-hand man.

What to See Here ?

The remains of ancient Sipious are now preserved as an archaeological park. Features of the ruins excavated there include the foundations of the city’s basilica and walls as well as an early Christian church.

Sipious on Timetravelrome App:

Sources: Velleius Paterculus, Roman History; Suetonius, Life of Augustus; Nicholas of Damascus, Life of Augustus; Appian, The Civil Wars; Cassius Dio, Roman History.

Author: Written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen

Header image: Portrait of Agrippa from the Geschichte der Romischen Kaiser Verlag von Quelle & Meyer by Alfred von Domaszewski published in Leipzig 1914. Picture is in the public domain.