Tropaeum Traiani: A Testament to Roman Glory in Ancient Dacia

Rising from the windswept plateau of Adamclisi in Romania’s Dobruja region, the reconstructed Tropaeum Traiani stands as one of the most remarkable testimonies to Roman imperial ambition and military might. This magnificent circular monument, commissioned by Emperor Trajan in 109 CE, commemorates not just a victory, but the brutal reality of conquest that shaped the ancient world.

Metopes on the Tropaeum Traiani monument. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Historical Context: Trajan’s Dacian Wars

The story of Tropaeum Traiani begins with one of the most decisive conflicts in Roman history—the Dacian Wars (101-106 CE). The monument specifically commemorates the victory at the Battle of Adamclisi in the winter of 101-102 CE, where Emperor Trajan faced the Dacian king Decebalus in what would prove to be a pivotal confrontation. The battle was particularly brutal, with heavy casualties on both sides, though it ultimately resulted in a decisive Roman victory.

The battle arose from Decebalus’s strategic gambit to attack Roman-held Moesia south of the Danube, hoping to force Trajan to abandon his positions near the Dacian capital of Sarmizegetusa. The Dacian army, allied with the Roxolani and Bastarnae tribes, attempted to cross the frozen Danube but suffered massive losses when the ice broke under their weight. Trajan moved his army from the mountains, following the Dacians into Moesia, where the decisive engagement unfolded at Adamclisi.

Architectural Marvel: Engineering Roman Glory

The Tropaeum Traiani  was likely designed by Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajan’s favored architect who also engineered the famous bridge across the Danube. Standing approximately 40 meters tall with an equal diameter, the structure embodies the Roman mastery of monumental architecture. The monument consists of a massive cylindrical drum built on seven concentric rows of stone steps. The drum itself was constructed of concrete (opus caementicium) faced with local limestone blocks, arranged using the sophisticated opus quadratum technique without mortar—a method showing Greek influence adapted to Roman engineering standards.

Tropaeum Traiani. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The structure was dedicated to Mars Ultor (“Mars the Avenger”), with a bilingual inscription preserved fragmentarily on the hexagonal base: “MARTI ULTOR[I] IM[P(erator)CAES]AR DIVI NERVA[E] F(ILIUS) N[E]RVA TRA]IANUS [AUG(USTUS) GERM(ANICUS)] DAC]I[CU]S PONT(IFEX) MAX(IMUS) TRIB(UNICIA) POTEST(ATE) XIII IMP(ERATOR) VI CO(N)S(UL) V P(ater) P(atriae),” translating to “To Mars the Avenger, Caesar the emperor, son of divine Nerva, Nerva Trajan Augustus, Germanicus, Dacicus, Pontifex Maximus…”

Reconstruction of the inscription.

The Metopes: Visual Chronicles of Conquest

The monument’s most striking feature was its frieze of 54 rectangular stone panels (metopes) that encircled the drum like a belt, each measuring approximately 1.48-1.49 meters in height.

Metopes on the monument. Photo by Michel Gybels.

These metopes depicted scenes from the Dacian Wars in remarkable detail, from cavalry charges to hand-to-hand combat.

Metopes – a closer view. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Of the original 54 metopes, 48 survive and are housed in the Adamclisi Museum, while one is preserved in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. The remaining few were lost over time, with some reportedly falling into the Danube during attempts to transport them to Bucharest.

Roman Legionary with a mail manica and spear with Dacian falxman. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The metopes narrate the progression of war, beginning with cavalry action and heavy fighting, including five scenes of hand-to-hand engagement between Roman legionaries and their Dacian opponents. The narrative includes depictions of Trajan himself, Roman soldiers on the march, brutal battle scenes, and the final subjugation of the Dacian prisoners.

Vexilliferi (Standard Beareres). Photo by Michel Gybels.

The metopes were created by five different groups of craftsmen, each with varying levels of skill—some carved human sculptures clumsily, while others demonstrated sophisticated knowledge of human proportions. Unlike the refined depictions on Trajan’s Column in Rome, these metopes have been described as displaying “barbarian provincial taste,” carved by “sculptors of provincial training” who “reveal a lack of experience in figurative representation.” However, this rawer, bloodier art carries “more power and authenticity for lacking the filter of a refined disdain for the realities of war.”

Legionary and Dacian Warrior. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The simplified nature of the reliefs may have been deliberately designed to clarify imperial iconography for a provincial or foreign audience. As scholar Jas Elsner noted, the reliefs present all the “vitality, vigour and non-classicism of barbarian art,” giving the conquered Dacians a “visual voice” in the narrative that was “familiar, even natural” to them.

Barbarian family in a four-wheel cart. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Destruction and Rediscovery

The monument’s fate mirrored the empire’s own decline. By the second and third centuries CE, it suffered degradation from earthquakes and human activity. In 170 CE, the citadel of Tropaeum Traiani faced attacks from the Goths, and the monument may have been destroyed in an earthquake by 316 CE. A great earthquake in 477 CE further damaged the structure, causing it to lean, as discovered by later topographic surveys.

With the rise of Christianity, the monument faced deliberate destruction as local inhabitants, who “still shared the pagan philosophy,” attacked “the ancient cults represented by sculptures and images.” The process was similar to that experienced by the Tropaeum Augusti in France, where Saint Honoratus initiated the demolition of statues considered pagan idols. The scattering of fragments occurred between the fifth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century. During this time, after the Ottoman empire established its capital in Constantinople in 1453, a Turkish general visited the site and extracted a sculpted metope to send to Constantinople.

Tropaeum by H. Jacobi in 1896, Public Domain

By the 19th century, the monument appeared as “a huge dome-shaped masonry surrounded by massive deposits of earth and debris, where shrubs had grown, among which were carved stones scattered about.” The first modern archaeological investigations began in 1882 under Grigore Tocilescu, the first Romanian archaeologist, who conducted campaigns in 1883, 1884, and 1890.

Tropaeum Traiani at Adamclisi, before its reconstruction in 1977. Source: Remembering victories, remembering losses: Trajan’s Trophy and Altar at Adamclisi.

After extensive debates in the 1960s, Romanian authorities chose to rebuild the monument using new materials while preserving the original pieces in museums. Two solutions were proposed: restore the original pieces to Adamclisi and reconstruct the missing ones, or keep the originals in Bucharest’s History Museum and create copies. The second option was approved, and reconstruction began in 1973, completed in 1977 to coincide with the centenary of Dobrogea’s union with the Romanian state.

Reconstruction works. Source: Tropaeum Augusti (France) and Tropaeum Traiani (Romania): A Comparative Study

The new monument uses a metal structure clad with stone pieces from the same ancient quarries exploited 2,000 years ago, located in the Enigea valley about 4 kilometers from Adamclisi. This approach maintained the monument’s visual impact while preserving the authentic artifacts for posterity. The reconstruction follows the same architectural principles as the original, including the cylindrical base, conical roof with scale-like stone plates arranged in 25 concentric rows, and the hexagonal superstructure supporting the trophy.

Military and Strategic Importance

Tropaeum Traiani was positioned at a crucial strategic location, controlling the ancient road from Tomis (modern Constănţa) to Durostorum (modern Silistra in Bulgaria). This positioning made it not merely a commemorative monument but a statement of Roman territorial control and a warning to potentially rebellious tribes. Trajan settled veterans from his Dacian campaigns in the area, establishing both a fortress and a civil town. The inhabitants, known as the “Traianenses Tropaeenses,” dedicated a statue to their patron emperor between 115-116 CE.

Cities and roads in eastern Moesia, by CristianChirita, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Under Antoninus Pius, the site became home to a detachment of the XI Claudia legion, and its importance grew when it was promoted to the rank of municipium around 180 CE during Marcus Aurelius’s reign. However, the settlement’s exposed position meant it did not prosper during the 3rd century and had to be rebuilt almost from scratch during the time of Constantine the Great and Licinius. A dedication survives to the two emperors, with Constantine tellingly taking precedence. The settlement continued until it was destroyed by the Avars at the end of the 6th century, marking the end of nearly five centuries of Roman presence in the region.

Comparison with Tropaeum Augusti: Two Monuments, One Empire

The Tropaeum Traiani shares striking similarities with its French counterpart, the Tropaeum Augusti at La Turbie. Both monuments celebrate imperial victories over frontier peoples—Augustus over 45 Alpine tribes in 6 BCE, and Trajan over the Dacians in 102 CE. Both use circular architecture with metopes and pilasters, were built according to Vitruvian principles, and served as symbols of Roman territorial control in conquered regions.

La Turbie – reconstruction. Photo by Von Matthias Holländer.

Key differences exist in their current states: Tropaeum Augusti preserves original ancient construction consolidated but incomplete, while Tropaeum Traiani presents a complete reconstruction using new materials. The La Turbie monument stands 35 meters high and retains much of its original stonework, while partial reconstruction allowed only the western facade to be completely restored. In contrast, the Adamclisi monument was entirely rebuilt with copies to preserve the originals in museums.

La Turbie – photo by Von I, Gugerell, CC BY 2.5.

The Adamclisi Museum: Preserving Ancient Testimony

The modern museum, designed as a lapidarium to shelter and promote the original sculptural pieces, houses the authentic metopes carefully arranged and numbered according to their presumed placement on the monument. Beyond the 48 preserved metopes, the museum displays the lower and upper friezes, pilasters, crenelations, parapet blocks from the figured attic, and the colossal statue of the trophy with preserved elements of the statuary group—Geto-Dacian women and captives with hands bound.

Museum. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The museum also contains fragments of the dedicatory inscription and remains from the altar bearing the names of approximately 3,800 fallen Roman soldiers. Archaeological artifacts from the nearby city of Tropaeum Traiani and surrounding areas illustrate both the early habitation of the Geto-Dacians in southern Dobrogea and the continuity of Romanian settlement in this region where Romanization occurred most profoundly.

Museum. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Site of the Ancient Town

The remains of the ancient town lies just a couple of kilometers away from the actual village, on a low rise from which a fantastic view can be had of the trophy itself and on to the high plateau up to the east.

Civitas Tropaensium – by Rotaru Florin – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

It is protected on three sides by a natural slope, which was reinforced in the 4th century by a defensive wall studded with horseshoe-shaped towers. Here and there the ground is scarred with the trenches from various archaeological campaigns.

Remains of the ancient walls. Photo by Michel Gybels.

On the town’s main street, around 200 metres from the principal gate, lies the basilica forensis, the civilian basilica, marked out by two rows of column bases that formed the portico of the building.

Columns of the Basilica. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The forum, alongside which the basilica must have lain, is obscured by a jumble of ruins. Nearby, four Christian basilicas from the 4th to 6th centuries are evidence of the Christian life of the city. One, the ‘Cistern Basilica’, was adapted in late-Roman times from a pre-excisting water cistern, which provided a convenient and well-built rectangular structure without the need for extensive new building. Across the main street again are the ruins of the ‘Marble Basilica’, clear only from the shape of its apse, the rest being just an undifferentiated mass of stones.

View on the archaeological site. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The east gate of the city and the adjacent wall have been reconstructed and one tower stands incongruously whole. Leaving the site from the south side, a single jagged arch of a gateway survives, divorced from any surviving stones of the walls, from where a slight scramble leads down to the modern roadway.

Reconstructed tower. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Legacy and Significance

The Tropaeum Traiani stands as more than a monument to military victory; it represents the complex relationship between conqueror and conquered, between imperial ambition and human cost. Its brutal imagery depicts not just Roman triumph but “the subjugation of a nation and the ugliness of war, made all the more unsavoury for its triumphalist tone.” Yet from the Roman perspective, they had merely punished treaty-breakers and brought “peace” to a new province.

The monument exemplifies how Rome used architecture as political propaganda, creating permanent reminders of imperial power that would outlast the battles themselves. The choice to erect such a massive structure in conquered territory, rather than in Rome itself, demonstrates the importance of projecting strength to both subjected populations and potential enemies. The inclusion of local artistic traditions in the metopes suggests a nuanced approach to cultural integration, allowing the conquered some representation in their own subjugation.

*The Tropaeum Traiani can be visited freely, while the Victory Monument and archaeological museum in Adamclisi require admission tickets. The site offers a profound glimpse into the ambitions, achievements, and ultimate limitations of one of history’s greatest empir

Sources: 

“Tropaeum Augusti (France) and Tropaeum Traiani (Romania): A Comparative Study” by Alexandru Ș. Bologa and Ana-Maria Grămescu.

“La propagande impériale aux frontières de l’empire romain: Tropaeum Traiani” by Maria Alexandresca Vianu.

“Inscriptii de la Tropaeum Traiani“. Heidelberg University.

Header photo: By Andrei Lucian Vaida – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Our friend and TimeTravel Rome author Michel Gybels has been involved in this collaborative effort since its launch – you might remember our post about the project kickoff one year ago. Now, we’re excited to share the key achievements from their research, highlighted in the report called “The Roman North Sea Region – A Resource Assessment and Research Questions“, released in December 2024. More information can be found on the website of the project: https://bridgingthenorthsea.org

Header page of the Report, Dec 2024

Project Scope: A Network Across the Waters

The project looked at how the Roman Empire used the North Sea and Channel coastlines to create an interconnected world of trade, military power, and cultural exchange. The research covers roughly 55 BCE (when Julius Caesar first crossed to Britain) to around 410 CE (when Roman rule in Britain ended).

What’s different about this project is its cross-border approach. Instead of studying these coastal regions separately, researchers have combined their knowledge to see how sites across four modern countries once functioned as parts of a single, complex maritime network. Some of the key highlights of this unique work are summarized below.

The Roman Coastal Landscape

The coastline during Roman times was dramatically different from today. In many places, what is now dry land was once open water, while other areas now underwater were once thriving settlements.

For instance, the Wantsum Channel in Kent once separated the Isle of Thanet from mainland Britain, creating a navigable waterway that Roman ships used regularly. Archaeological evidence shows that Richborough, at the southern end of this channel, served as a major port of entry and supply base. Today, this ancient seaway lies buried beneath agricultural fields, its course marked by earthen sea walls and drainage channels.

The Wantsum Channel at time of the Romans. P 135 of the Report, Dec 2024.

Similarly, in what is now Flanders, the coastline has retreated significantly. The Roman coastal fort of Oudenburg, which once overlooked the sea, now sits over 8 kilometers inland. This dramatic change highlights how dynamic these coastal environments were and the challenges they posed to Roman engineers and sailors.

Schematic reconstruction of the coastal plain during the mid-Roman period. Red line: the current coastline; black line: border of the coastal plain in the Roman period. P 20 of the Report, Dec 2024.

Military Infrastructure

The project has documented a network of forts, harbors, and lighthouses that allowed Rome to maintain control over this maritime frontier. These installations weren’t randomly placed but formed a coherent defensive and logistical system.

Confirmed and possible Roman military installations along the coast of the Netherlands, Belgium and France. P 37 of the Report, Dec 2024.

At Dover (Portus Dubris), traces of harbor works, two lighthouses, and a fort of the Classis Britannica (British Fleet) reveal how the Romans engineered this natural harbor for military and trade purposes. Across the water at Boulogne-sur-Mer (Gesoriacum), a similar arrangement with lighthouses and a substantial harbor installation mirrors the setup at Dover, emphasizing the importance of the Dover Strait crossing.

Dover Castle and the Roman Lighthouse, By Michael Coppins – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Further north, at South Shields (Arbeia) near the mouth of the River Tyne, a fort was specially redesigned around 198 CE to serve as a supply base for Hadrian’s Wall, with numerous granaries for storing goods delivered by sea. The project has highlighted how these coastal installations were integral to the functioning of Hadrian’s Wall, connecting this frontier to the wider imperial supply network.

Material Culture: The Goods That Moved

Perhaps the most tangible evidence of connectivity comes from the artifacts that were transported across the North Sea. The project’s analysis of material culture has revealed shifting patterns of exchange that reflect broader historical developments.

During the early Roman period (43-165 CE), large quantities of pottery, especially terra sigillata tableware from southern Gaul, were imported into Britain. Metal goods, coins, olive oil in amphorae, and wine also crossed the Channel in considerable volumes. The Pudding Pan Rock site off the Kent coast, where hundreds of pottery vessels have been recovered from what may be multiple shipwrecks, exemplifies this busy trade.

Group of Roman samian ware pottery from Pudding Pan Rock. Source: Ashmolean Museum.

Interestingly, the research shows that the volume of cross-Channel exchange declined significantly after the mid-2nd century, possibly due to the combined effects of the Antonine Plague (165-180 CE) and the Marcomannic Wars that destabilized parts of the empire. At the same time, however, there was an increase in Roman goods moving into the northern Netherlands, suggesting that imperial subsidies paid to Germanic tribes were reshaping trade networks.

By the late Roman period (260-409 CE), the nature of cross-Channel exchange had fundamentally changed. Britain was exporting agricultural products to supply the Rhine legions, while importing far fewer manufactured goods. This shift from a consumer to a producer reflects the evolving economic role of Britain within the empire.

The Human Factor: Travelers Across the Sea

Beyond the infrastructure and artifacts, the project has begun to identify individuals who traveled across the North Sea, putting human faces to this maritime connectivity. Inscriptions, tombstones, and written records preserve the names of merchants, soldiers, officials, and others who made these journeys.

One notable example is L. Viducius Placidus, a merchant from the Rouen area in France, who is known from inscriptions both at Domburg in the Netherlands and at York in Britain, where he constructed an arch and temple. Such evidence demonstrates that individual businesspeople could operate across multiple provinces, maintaining networks that spanned the North Sea.

Dedicatory inscription made in York by Lucius Viducius Placidus. Source: https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/3195

Military personnel were also frequently on the move. A tombstone at South Shields commemorates Regina, a British woman who had married Barates, a merchant from Palmyra in Syria. Another records Victor, a Moorish tribesman who had traveled from North Africa to serve in the Roman forces in northern Britain.

These personal stories bring to life the cosmopolitan nature of the Roman North Sea world, where people from across the empire might meet and interact in bustling ports and frontier settlements.

A Landscape Under Threat

Many Roman coastal sites are now threatened by modern coastal processes and climate change. At East Wear Bay in Folkestone, a Roman villa site continues to erode as the cliff face retreats. At Reculver on the north Kent coast, much of the Roman fort has already been lost to the sea.

The Roman villa at East Wear Bay in the 1940s. The yellow line represents the current cliff edge which is progressing northwards. P 141 of the Report, Dec 2024.

In the Medway estuary, Roman industrial sites on low-lying islands are being submerged as sea levels rise, while in the Netherlands, several coastal forts have entirely disappeared beneath the waves due to coastal erosion. The project is highlighting the urgent need to document these vulnerable sites before they are lost forever.

Looking Forward: Future Research Directions

As the “Bridging the North Sea” project moves into its second year, several key research priorities have emerged:

1. Developing better mapping of Roman coastal landscapes: Creating GIS-based maps that can evolve as understanding improves
2. Synthesizing fragmented research: Bringing together the results of numerous small-scale investigations to build a comprehensive picture
3. Fostering cross-disciplinary collaboration: Working with geologists, climate scientists, and maritime specialists to understand the ancient North Sea environment
4. Sharing methodologies: Developing approaches to investigate difficult-to-access Roman landscapes that lie buried or submerged
5. Building international collaboration: Strengthening networks across the North Sea to address shared research questions

One interesting proposal is for a “flagship” experimental archaeology project that would involve constructing a Roman-era vessel, potentially with teams working on different sides of the North Sea. Such a project could provide valuable insights into the capabilities of Roman ships while engaging the public across the region.

The Untold Stories of Industry: Salt, Pottery, and More

One area that deserves more attention is the industrial activities that took place along these Roman coastlines. The project has begun to document how the Romans exploited coastal resources to fuel their economy, particularly in industries like salt production and pottery manufacturing.

In Kent, over 60 Roman salt-manufacturing sites have been identified, particularly concentrated in the north and north-west of the county. These salt works were strategically positioned to take advantage of tidal flows and sea access for transportation. The production process involved evaporating seawater in large clay containers (briquetage) over hearths, creating mounds of industrial waste that are still visible in some marshland areas.

Similarly, the project has identified more than 50 pottery manufacturing sites in Kent, many located in the north Kent marshes where they could benefit from both the necessary raw materials and easy access to water transport. Black Burnished Ware, produced in large quantities along both sides of the Thames Estuary from the mid-2nd to mid-3rd century, represents one of the major pottery industries. These vessels were widely distributed, including to Hadrian’s Wall, suggesting they may have been used to transport salt or other goods.

Map of Roman Kent showing the location of key sites. P.16 of the Report, Dec 2024.

In Flanders, salt-making was also of considerable economic importance during the Roman period. Finds of briquetage pottery indicate that salt was being produced at several locations spread throughout the coastal plain, always near active tidal inlets. Recent research has shown that the salt industry evolved from small-scale household production to a more industrial scale operation using batteries of up to 15 simultaneously operating furnaces.

The economic networks that supported these industries were complex. Salt was a valuable commodity, essential for food preservation and likely traded widely. Pottery production sites like those at East Chalk near Gravesend seem to have been entire settlements dedicated to manufacturing, with multiple kilns operating alongside domestic structures and small cemeteries.

These industrial landscapes represent an important aspect of North Sea connectivity. The products made in these coastal workshops traveled far and wide through Roman trading networks, while the technologies and skills needed for these industries may have crossed the sea with specialist workers. Studying these industries gives us a different perspective on connectivity – not just of elites and military forces, but of everyday economic life and the movement of essential commodities.

A Connected Past, A Connected Future

The “Bridging the North Sea” project reminds us that the divisions between countries that seem so natural today are relatively recent constructs. For the Romans, the North Sea was not a barrier but a highway that connected regions now split between four modern nations.

By studying this shared maritime heritage collaboratively, the project is not only enhancing our understanding of the past but also strengthening international connections in the present. As research continues, we can expect even more insights into how the Roman Empire created one of the first truly integrated North Sea regions, establishing patterns of connectivity that, in many ways, continue to shape the area today.

This ancient maritime network, with its ports, forts, ships, and travelers, represents an important chapter in the history of North Sea connectivity—one that resonates with our modern world of international trade and cross-border collaboration.

Source of the featured image: Artist’s impression: the port of Boulogne and the estuary in the 2nd century Cl. Seillier and P. Knoblock (2004) – archives of the archaeology service. Page 158 of the Report.

The year was 52 BCE, and Gaul was ablaze with rebellion. After years of Roman expansion, the Celtic tribes had finally united under a charismatic leader named Vercingetorix. What followed would become one of history’s most epic sieges – a make-or-break moment that would determine the fate of Gaul.

The history of the battle

In 52 BCE, Gaul erupted in rebellion as Vercingetorix united the Celtic tribes against Roman rule. After a series of battles, he retreated with 80,000 men to the hilltop fortress of Alesia. Julius Caesar responded with a remarkable military feat: his 50,000 troops constructed two rings of fortifications—one to trap Vercingetorix inside, another to defend against an approaching relief army of 250,000 Gauls.

Reconstruction of Alesia defensive walls. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The siege culminated in a dramatic double battle, with Romans fighting Vercingetorix’s forces attempting to break out while simultaneously defending against the massive relief army. Caesar personally led the defense, and despite being vastly outnumbered, his forces prevailed. Vercingetorix surrendered, effectively ending Celtic independence in Gaul and securing Roman control north of the Alps.

Remains of objects belonging to the besieged Alesia: spearheads, arrows, javelins, sword scabbards. On display in the Visitors center of Alesia. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Alesia: The Search for Caesar’s Legendary Battleground

The Battle of Alesia in 52 BCE marked the final showdown between Julius Caesar and the Gallic leader Vercingetorix. But where exactly did this pivotal siege take place? This question sparked one of the most fascinating archaeological debates of the 19th century

The location of ancient Alesia had been debated for centuries. In 1855, architect Alphonse Delacroix proposed identifying it with Alaise, near Besançon. This sparked what became known as the “Alesia Question,” with multiple communities claiming to be the site of the historic battle. The current site’s discovery and excavation became intrinsically linked to Emperor Napoleon III’s personal and political ambitions.

In the late 1850s, Napoleon III embarked on an ambitious project to write a comprehensive “History of Julius Caesar.” Far from being merely an academic pursuit, this endeavor was deeply intertwined with his political ideology of “democratic Caesarism.” Napoleon III saw parallels between Caesar’s rise to power during the troubled times of the Roman Republic and his own ascension following the French Revolution’s aftermath.

The controversy reached its peak when the CTG (which stands for Commission of Gaul Topography), following Napoleon III’s direct orders, began systematic excavations at Alise-Sainte-Reine in Côte-d’Or in April 1861. The commission, convinced by the site’s topography, conducted rigorous archaeological investigations under the direction of Saulcy, Bertrand, and Creuly.

It was modern archaeology and numismatics that eventually tilted the scales decisively toward Alise-Sainte-Reine. Excavations there uncovered hundreds of Gallic and Roman coins dating precisely to the siege period – exactly what you’d expect to find on a battlefield from 52 BCE.

General map of Alesia. Green lines correspond to archaeological excavations in 1861-1865. Photo by Timetravelrome.

A Day at MuséoParc Alésia: Where Ancient History Comes Alive

Today, visitors to Alise-Sainte-Reine can explore an impressive MuséoParc that brings the siege to life. When you first arrive, you’ll be struck by the modern circular building that seems to rise organically from the Burgundian landscape. Designed by Bernard Tschumi Architects, the MuséoParc’s visitor center is a striking cylindrical building wrapped in a wooden herringbone facade, echoing the ancient Roman fortifications. Its green roof, planted with grass and trees, helps it blend seamlessly into the historic landscape when viewed from the hilltop.

MuséoParc’s visitor center. Photo by Michel Gybels.

MuséoParc’s visitor center -inside. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Throughout the year, the MuséoParc brings history to life through dynamic reenactments. Skilled performers in authentic legionary uniforms demonstrate Roman military tactics and siege weapons, while engaging spectators with educational commentary. These lively shows offer an immersive glimpse into the epic battle that shaped Gaul’s destiny, combining historical accuracy with accessible storytelling.

Roman camp at Alesia. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Part of the reenactment show. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Another reenactment scene. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Below are few highlights from the MuséoParc collection or archaeological finds:

The “Martialis stone” – a stele inscribed in the Gallic language. It commemorates the construction in Alesia of a building to a Gallic divinity — Ucuétis — by a certain Martialis, from whom it takes its name. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Capitoline Triad. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Female bust, 1st c. AD. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The Monumental Roman Alesia: A Tale Written in Stone

Recent archaeology at Alesia has revealed how this famous Gallic stronghold transformed into a sophisticated Roman town, with its grandest development occurring between the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius (14-54 CE). The heart of Roman Alesia tells a fascinating story of cultural transformation through its major public buildings.

Archaeological site of the gallo-roman Alesia. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The Roman theater has emerged as one of the site’s most intriguing structures. Archaeological work between 2004-2007 uncovered its complex evolution – beginning with modest timber structures in the Tiberian period. The Romans’ first attempt at a monumental stone theater was quickly abandoned, but they soon returned with a grander vision. The final theater, expanded southward and southeast, arose during Claudius’s reign. Its elaborate design included a colonnade adorned with Hellenistic-Roman style capitals, fragments of which still survive today.

Theater of Alesia – protected against erosion. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Visiting the Alesia theater today, you can still trace the massive curved walls, see evidence of the various building phases, and imagine the thousands of spectators who once gathered here for performances. It’s a powerful reminder of how ancient Alesia wasn’t just a battlefield – it was a living, breathing city where people gathered to enjoy entertainment just as we do today.

Theater walls. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The civil basilica: this immense Administrative building housed the coria, which was the municipal counsel of the time. It also served as a courthouse it and meeting space. It was richly decorated.

View on the Basilica. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Partial reconstruction of the basilica. Photo by Timetravelrome.

The Forum development marked an even more dramatic change in Alesia’s urban landscape. Around 40-50 CE, the Romans cleared away the old Gallic metalworking quarter to create this new civic center. The forum complex grew to include a grand paved plaza and a series of uniform rooms fronted by a northern portico. In the early 2nd century, the addition of a basilica completed the forum’s transformation into a proper Roman administrative center.

The place of the Forum on the right side from Basilica. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Religion remained central to life in Alesia, with two major sanctuaries dominating the townscape. The central sanctuary evolved from an earlier Gallic sacred site, undergoing significant renovations during the Augustan and Claudian periods. Its decorated friezes and statuary showcased Roman architectural sophistication while respecting the site’s sacred history.

Remains of the Temple. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Reconstruction of the Alesia Temple and its sacred area. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Perhaps most telling of Alesia’s unique character is the Monument of Ucuetis. Standing along the forum’s north side, this building honored the local craft deities Ucuetis and Bergusia. Built through local patronage, it symbolizes how Alesia maintained its famous metalworking traditions even as it embraced Roman urban ideals.

Monument of Ucuetis. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Ucuétis monument in Alesia – underground room in which hundreds of metal offerings were found. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Other monuments on the site include so-called « bronzesmith furnaces ». These enigmatic installations, numerous on the site, relate to a craft activity linked to fire. They have no equivalent outside Alesia.

Bronzesmith furnace of Alesia. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Visiting the Alesia site. Photo by Timetravelrome.

Sources:

• Recherches en cours sur le théâtre d’Alésia. Bilan préliminaire (2004-2008)
• Alesia « Le théâtre gallo-romain » Société des Sciences Historiques et Naturelles de Semur-en-Auxois
• Roland Martin et Pierre Varene, Le monument d’Ucuetis à Alesia. Revue archéologique du Centre de la France  Année 1974  13-3-4  pp. 336-337

Some exhibitions are not new – they started in 2023 or are being extended. If you see an exhibition that’s missing – feel free to email me at contact@timetravelrome.com and I will add it to the list! :)

🪔 USA

~New York, MET 19/11/2023 – 03/03/2024 “Africa and Byzantium”

~Tampa, Museum of Art 13/01/2023 – 2026 “Life & Death in the Ancient World”

~Penn Museum 03/06/2023 – TBA “Ancient Food & Flavor”

~Arlington, Museum of Art 30/03/2024 – 23/06/2024 “Pompeii: The Immortal City”

🪔UK

~London, British Museum 01/02/2024 – 23/06/2024 “Legion – life in the Roman army”

~Colchester, Castle 15/07/2023 – 14/01/2024 “Gladiators: A Day at the Roman Games”

🪔 Italy & Vatican City

~Rome, Musei Capitolini 24/11/2023 – 05/05/2024 “Fidia”

~Rome Bath of Diocletian, until 21 April 2024 “Dacia. The last frontier of Romanity”

~Rome, École française de Rome 29/05/2024 – 20/12/2024 “School’ own Antiquities Collection”

~Sesto Fiorentino, Ernesto Ragionieri Library 29/09/2023 – 31/07/2024 “Moments of life on the plain before, during and after the Etruscans Archaeology unveiled in Sesto Fiorentino”

~Vatican City, Necropolis of the Via Triumphalis 17/11/2023 – TBA “Life and Death in the Rome of the Caesars”

🪔 France

~Paris, Louvre 29/02/2024 – 28/09/2025 “Near Eastern Antiquities in Dialogues: The MET at the Louvre”

~Paris, Louvre 24/04 – 16/09/2024 “Olympism: Modern Invention, Ancient Legacy”

~Paris, Crypte of the Notre Dame 31/01/2024 – “Objects recovered in the Seine river since prehistory until present days”

~Orléans, Hôtel Cabu 17/06/2023 – 28/04/2024 – “Archaeological treasuries”

~Strasbourg, City Exhibition Centre 11/10/2023–23/02/2024 “Tutankhamun : Discovering the Forgotten Pharaoh”

🪔 Germany

~Frankfurt, Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung 08/03/2023 – 21/01/2024 “Machine room of the Gods”

~Giessen,  Oberhessisches Museum 31/03/2023 –  TBA “Of Beasts and Men – Menschen und Tiere in der Antiken Kunst”

🪔 Netherlands

~Amsterdam, The Allard Pierson Museum 06/10/2023 – 25/02/2024 “Face to Face: The people behind Mummy Portraits”

~Amsterdam, H’ART  Museum 16/09/2023 – 20/05/2024 “Julius Caesar  I came, I saw, I met my doom”

🪔Switzerland

~Basel, Antikenmuseum 19/11/2023 – 26/05/2024 “Iberians”

🪔Croatia

~Split, Archaeological Museum 25/06/2023 – TBA “Avars and Slavs south of the Drava”

🪔Australia

~Melbourne, Potter Museum of Art 24/07/2023 – 26/07/2024 “Ancient Lives: Insights from the Classics and Archaeology Collection“

Cartagena (called Carthago Nova by the Romans) was a major urban center with the usual range of civic structures to demonstrate the city’s status to the rest of the world. These included a theatre capable of accommodating around 7000 spectators, constructed between the years 5 and 1 BC. In the third century AD a market was built on the site. This in turn was destroyed by the Vandals in 425 AD.

Rediscovered in 1988, the theater has been restored so that much of it appears as it did in Roman times, including much of the seating and evocative remains of the stage building.

3D Reconstruction of the The theater of Cartagena. Source: regmurcia.com

History of a Discovery

The discovery and excavation of the Roman Theater in Cartagena in recent years has been one of the most surprising discoveries of archaeology of the city, as the monumentality and splendor of the theater have by far exceeded archaeologists expectations. The partial overlap of the Old Cathedral on top of the Roman theater is only the end result of a complex succession of neighborhoods and structures that have made this area a real history book.

Various constructions on the site of the theater before excavations. Source: Una experiencia en la recuperación del patrimonio arqueológico el teatro de “Carthago Nova”

Indeed, since medieval times, the site of the theater was occupied by a humble but popular neighborhood – with the passage of time it had become one of the most depressed areas of the old town.

Old buildings on the site of the ancient theater prior to excavations. Source: Una experiencia en la recuperación del patrimonio arqueológico el teatro de “Carthago Nova”

The excavation works started in October 1988. This first campaign revealed a complex superimposition of structures and allowed the discovery of rich architectural elements. In the period between 1996 and 2003, the excavations were completed and the theater could be seen in all its grandeur and splendor.

Theater of Cartagena today. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The monument and its parts

The situation of the theater in one of the highest hills of the city facilitated the construction of the cavea, which appears in its central part excavated in the rock of the mountain, while the lateral flanks are supported by vaulted galleries.

Aerial view of the theater. Source: CARM.es

The cavea with a capacity for 7,000 spectators, is divided into three horizontal sectors (moeniana), again divided by radial stairways.

Cavea of the theater. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The main entrances were made public through two side aisles (aditus) for which two separate entrance doors lintels with dedications to Lucius Caesar, east, and probably Caius Caesar were located on the west. Both dedications, together with the consul mention designatus in the cursus of Caius one of the altars found in the pit of hyposcaenium has allowed realize the date of construction or opening of the building between 5 and 1 a. C.

On the right one can see the entrance door to the Theater with the lintel dedicated to Lucius Caesar. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Dedicatory inscriptions to Gaius and Lucius Caesar. Photo by Michel Gybels.

These side corridors led to the orchestra – semicircular space in front of the stage or proscenium which develops with a length of 43.60 m. On the orchestra there were also three rows seats of honor (proedria) reserved to the authorities.

The stage of the theater. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The bases, cornices and especially capitals were adorned with rich decoration, characteristic of the Augustan era.

Marble relief of the Rea Silvia, mother of Romulus, found in the Theater. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Restoration

The restoration of the Roman Theater in Cartagena has resulted in a combination of techniques aiming at the replenishment of areas where the remains of the theater had disappeared completely, consolidation of some other areas, and partial re-building so that the building can be visited with comfort and also can be better understood by tourists. Importantly, all necessary measures were taken to ensure that the new additions can be dismantled without any damage to the original work, and the material impact of reconstructions was minimized.

Restored elements of the scene are clearly visible. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Later history of the Theater

After the 3rd c. AD, the theater was extensively modified to serve as a market and public commercial space – a macellum. Ornamental materials were reused for the marketplace, which explains why most of the building’s fragments were found at the site of the theater itself, but in a re-used position. It is estimated that around 60% of the building’s original materials remain in situ. After the destruction of the city by the Vandals in 425, the macellum was severely damaged and probably abandoned. With the reconquest of the region by Emperor Justinian, the city was refounded as Carthago Spartaria. The ruins of the theater were once again the site of a commercial district in the 6th century AD.

Later on, in the 13th century, the St. Mary’s Cathedral was built on the site of the theater – its walls contain architectural details dating from Republican to Late Antique times, some of which can be attributed to the theater.

Sculpture of a lyre-playing Apollo in Cartagena’s Roman Theater Museum. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Jupiter altar – one of the three round altars dedicated to the Capitoline Triad found in situ. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Sources

Museum brochure The Roman Theatre and Museum of Cartagena

Una experiencia en la recuperación del patrimonio arqueológico el teatro de “Carthago Nova”, 2007, by Sebastián F. Ramallo Asensio

Header image: By Holger Uwe Schmitt – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

History of Carthago Nova

Originally named Martia, this settlement on the southern Iberian coast was refounded by the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal Barca (Hannibal’s brother) around 227 BC as Qart Hadasht (the “New City”). Its time as a Carthaginian possession was short-lived. Just seventeen years later, as the Second Punic War was drawing to a close, the Roman general Scipio Africanus took the city, using it as a military stronghold.

No doubt on account of its proximity to Spain’s vital silver mines, Carthago Nova prospered throughout the mid to late Republic: the historian Polybius describing it as a magnificent capital resplendent in palaces, temples, and, of course, its all important harbour. Indeed, the city’s remarkable natural harbour—one of the finest in the Roman world—didn’t just benefit the Romans strategically. It also yielded some of the best garum (a fish sauce used in all types of Roman cooking) in the entire Roman Empire.

Geographical location of Carthago Nova. Source: “Carthago Nova : la ville et le territoire. Recherches récentes”.

The granting of colonial status (Urbs Iulia Nova Carthago) in the year 54 BC marked the beginning of an intense process of urban development which culminated in the reign of Augustus (63 BC to 14 AD). This was when the new elites, made rich by trade and mining, brought about important developments within the city, with a new urban street network in which the streets formed blocks or insulae. In this period some of the most important buildings of the 1st century appeared, the ultimate goal of the transformation being to design a city in the image and likeness of the capital of the empire.

Panoramic view of the ancient Carthago Nova. Source: regmurcia.com

Carthago Nova also played a vital role in the civil war known as “The Year of the Four Emperors” in 69 AD. It was the seat of Galba, Spain’s governor, who was the first to respond to Julius Vindex’s call to free humanity from the Emperor Nero. Galba made his way from Carthago Nova to Rome, where he briefly ruled as emperor before being assassinated at the request of his rival, Otho. Under Diocletian in 298 AD, the city was renamed Carthaginesis and made the provincial capital of Hispania, and in 550 the Byzantine Emperor Justinian named it the capital of Spania (despite the fact it was under the Visigoths).

Roman Monuments of Cartagena

Cartagena has no shortage of Roman remains. Many have become interpolated either within or on the face of its subsequent buildings. However, there are plenty of well preserved independent sites too: the Augusteum (a college for the imperial cult) sits in the heart of the historical center alongside the remains of the Roman Forum and the Casa de la Fortuna—arguably one of the best examples of a luxury Roman villa in existence. The main Roman landmark is the amphitheater: a wonderful architectural feat dating from 5 – 1 BC to which the city’s archaeological museum is attached. Just on the outskirts of the historical center is the Torre Ciega: a monument dating from the first century BC that formed part of an enormous Roman necropolis.

Main archaeological areas in Cartagena. Source: “Cartagena City in the early roman empire era. Generation and analysis of a digital elevation model.”

The Molinete Roman Forum Museum

The museum allows you to dive into the history of the Cerro del Molinete from the 19th and 20th centuries back to the Old Carthago Nova. Over its three floors a selection of the most significant pieces found in the excavations around the Forum is exhibited, among with the paintings of Apollo and the Muses, the horn of plenty or the painting of a hunter are of particular interest.

Apollo and Muse Calliope, found in the Atrium Building. Source: “La pittura romana in Spagna: questioni di metodo e prospettive di ricerca“

Horn of abundance displayed in the Museum. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Fresco with a hunter. Photo by Michel Gybels.

As early as the 2nd century BC the Cerro del Molinete (Arx Hasdrubalis) was organised into terraces with public and private buildings. At its top stood the walls that defended the city and the temple. With urban renewal in the 1st century BC, several rectangular blocks were laid out at the foot of the hill.

Reconstruction of the Forum of Carthago Nova. Source: regmurcia.com

What we now call the Roman Forum Quarter was built on these blocks which consisted of a thermal complex with a wide arcaded square, the Atrium Building for holding religious banquets, the Sanctuary of Isis and the neuralgic center, the Colonial Forum with the most important religious, political and administrative buildings among which the Curia or local senate was of particular note. The blocks of Molinete were delimited by decumanus and by cardo (north-south streets).

A section of the Cardo – the north-south street. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Colonial Forum and the Curia

The Colonial Forum stood at the foot of the acropolis located on the Cerro del Molinete, a short distance from the port. Its monumental buildings would be from the 1st century AD, within a domestic and artisan neighborhood of the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, whose buildings were abandoned and destroyed. The square and its buildings were the scene of the Imperial cult ceremonies and processions on the occasion of state holidays, the center of the city’s political and administrative life and a privileged space for tributes to the Imperial House, patrons and local notables.

Screen capture from the video about the Roman Forum of Cartagena. Source: regmurcia.com

It was organised in a large rectangular square over three terraces. On the upper terrace a temple dedicated to Augustus was built, it dominated the whole complex, emphasising the power of the sacred over the political, judicial and administrative sphere. The middle terrace was flanked by the Curia and communicated with the upper one through side stairs. At its head was a large altar or podium perhaps for tributes to the colony. The lower terrace, the largest, must have been flanked by buildings such as the basilica, corporate headquarters, local administration buildings and chapels.

The “curia ordinis” was the meeting place of the local senate. Its characteristics, function and location make this building one of the most emblematic in the forum and in the city, reaching the rank of a temple due to its ritual inauguration combining sacred and political aspects. It consisted of two spaces: a patio, probably like an open-air lobby, and a hall richly decorated with marble where senate meetings were held. It was built in the reign of Tiberius (1st century AD) on a previous curia from the 1st century BC.

Screen capture from the video about the Roman Curia of Cartagena. Source: regmurcia.com

The riches and most prestigious families of the colony were represented in the senate, who financed works and other expenses in the city and had some rights such as having reserved places at events and celebrations. The functions of the Senate were, among others, decurional decrees, contests and adjudications or appointment of positions. The meetings were presided over by a monumental statue of the Emperor Augustus, dressed in a senatorial toga as the first citizen of Rome and with his head covered by his status as Pontiff Maximus.

The Temple of Isis

Archaeological excavations carried out in the area of the Molinete in 2015 and 2016 resulted in the recovery of another block of Roman Cartagena. This block was occupied by a sanctuary dedicated to the Hellenistic ad Roman gods Isis and Serapis, according to inscriptions dedicated to these deities which were found in the area some years ago. The sanctuary, perhaps associated with the Atrium building, was in uninterrupted use from the last third of the 1st century until the end of the 3rd century, when it ceased to be sacred and was reused in an industrial capacity.

Temple of Isis. By Nanosanchez – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Isolated from the surroundings and the people outside the cult by an imposing wall, the sanctuary was dominated by a small temple housing a sculpture of the deity, accessed by a staircase and with a facade featuring four Ionic columns. Around the temple was an open courtyard with porticoes on three of it sides, to the rear were three chapels opening out onto the portico related to ceremonies in honor of the divinity and there were also spaces reserved for the priests and the furnishings of the sanctuary.

In the basement of the courtyard in front of the temple were four vaulted cisterns to collect rainwater used in the purification rituals performed in the complex, such as washing of the sculptures.

Between the temple and the chapels there was another oval cistern for storing rainwater.

A cistern on the site. Photo by Michel Gybels.

This deposit and other walls were built in  the Punic era towards the end of the 3rd century BC and were discarded when the temple was built in the last of the 1st century AD.

The Thermal Baths of the Port

This is a thermal bath complex accessed via a substantial porticoed courtyard or peristyle with a central open-air space paved with bricks arranged in a herringbone fashion (opus spicatum). This space served not only as an entrance but also as a meeting and mixing place for the local elites; it was presided over by a statue of a figure carrying a cornucopia of Carrara marble topped with a basket of fruit, in clear allusion to the “pax romana” achieved by Augustus after the end of the civil wars. This horn of plenty is the only element of the sculpture which has been found. A painting representing a hunter was also discovered in the same place.

Reconstructed view of the Roman Baths. Source: regmurcia.com

The thermal baths of the port were built in the 1st century AD along a simple linear axis. They feature the typical sequence of cold rooms (frigidaria) which also served as dressing rooms, warm rooms (tepidaria), where the hypocaust or heating system can still be seen, and hot rooms (caldaria) located below the present street. Finally, the complex contains another small warm room and a sauna room. In ancient times the thermal baths were large complexes in which leasure mixed with hygiene, and were used to strenghten social, economic and political bonds.

Hypocaust of the Baths. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Palestra of the Roman Baths. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Decumanus

A stretch of the Decumanus Maximus was found in 1968 following the demolition of the Guardia Civil barracks, along with the ovens that heated the tepidarium and caldarium in the thermal baths and the remains of a commercial area consisting of a portico with shops. They were built in the times of the Roman Republic and re-modelled in the 4th century AD, re-using some of the original materials: the clearest example of this is an inscription dedicated to Numisius Laetus, a powerful family in Carthago Nova, which would initially have been in the Forum of the colony and was relocated to this area to form part of the wall of the thermal baths.

Decumanus Maximus, By VIATOR IMPERI – Cartagena, CC BY-SA 2.0.

The Atrium Building

The Atrium Building was built in the 1st century AD and may have been the seat of a religious group devoted to the celebration of ritual banquets in honour of the gods Isis and Serapis, who were worshipped in the adjoining sanctuary. Over the course of three centuries several alterations led to the original layout being modified, and in its final stage it was converted into a housing complex in which each of the rooms was home to a family. The building was in use until the late 3rd of early 4th century, when a fire destroyed the entire block.

Inner yard of the Atrium Building. Photo taken in situ by Michel Gybels.

Occupying an area of more than 2000 m², the Atrium was organized around a courtyard of columns from which stairs led up to the second floor. Open to the central courtyard were four large rooms in which there are still vestiges of the decorations and where banquets were held, with the diners reclining on couches.

The Atrium Building. Photo taken in situ by Michel Gybels.

The building also contained a hall used for worship, where the mural paintings which mimic the effect of marble still remain, and an altar which stood against the wall of the hall for worship. Service rooms stood on either side of the entrance corridor while there were shops in the exterior facade.

Restitution of the Atrium Building. Photo taken in situ by Michel Gybels.

The most significant findings in the Atrium Building are the paintings of muses and the god Apollo, a painted text commemorating the reform of the building during the time of emperor Elagabalus in the year 218 and the paintings of female masks framed by garlands.

Exploitation of the Site

The first excavations of the Decumanus were carried out by Pedro San Martin Moro, who in 1971 unearthed the first items of value found in the Plaza de los Tres Reyes. Subsequently, in 1997, the Town Hall of Cartagena installed a glass dome over the ruins to preserve them better, and in 2003 Cartagena Puerto de Culturas proposed  that the site should be covered and the remains presented in an accessible format for the public.

Work began on the hillside of the Molinete in 1982 with a team of archaeologists led by Miguel Martinez, who continued the excavation of the baths and provided new data leading to a better understanding of the remains of the Decumanus. Since 2008 excavations have continued throughout the side of the hill under the direction of José Miguel Nogera and Maria José Madrid.

All of these excavations have been managed by Cartagena Puerto de Culturas in an ambitious project which was awarded the National Prize for the Restoration and Conservation of Cultural Assets by the Ministry of Culture in the year 2012. The architectural design of the project was undertaken by Nicolas Maruri and Andres Canovas.

The Tour of the Site

• The Molinete Roman Forum Museum: exhibition of more than 300 pieces distributed over three floors from Cartagena to Carthago Nova, Carthago Spartaria and Carthago Nova to Qart Hadast.
• The Colonial Forum and the Curia: neuralgic center that housed the main buildings of every Roman city, among which the Curia or local senate were of particular note.
• Sanctuary of Isis and Serapis: the holy enclosure dedicated to the oriental gods whose images were guarded by the priests in the small temple which occupies the area.
• The Thermal Baths: views of the characteristic different spaces of a thermal complex with cold, warm and hot rooms. The porticoed courtyard which served as access to the thermal baths and in which the herringbone style paving is still in very good condition.
• Decumanus: this area contains more of the facilities of the thermal baths with an oven and ancillary spaces, and it is possible to walk along the Decumanus Maximus, the main road which crossed Carthago Nova from east to west.
• The Atrium Building: a chance to visit the various banqueting rooms, admiring the height of the walls and its ornate decoration.

A stand in the Museum with amphorae of various shapes, illustrating commercial links of the ancient Cartagena. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Sources:

• Cartagena Museum brochure “The History and Excavations of the site of the Molinete Roman Forum – Cartagena”.
• The “Carthago Nova” 3D restitution movie:  Link 
• Carthago Nova : la ville et le territoire. Recherches récentes.
• Cartagena City in the early roman empire era. Generation and analysis of a digital elevation model.
• La pittura romana in Spagna: questioni di metodo e prospettive di ricerca.

The ruins of the ancient city of Glanum in the South of France Provence region are a popular destination on the tourist route that leads from Avignon to Arles, passing the site of Les Baux and the medieval abbey of Montmajour.

Until the beginning of the 20th century, however, only two well preserved monuments, a mausoleum and an arch, known as “Les Antiques”, signalled Glanum’s location and its past glory.

Situated at the meeting point of the wild Alpilles hills and the gentle plain, the secrets of this Gallo-Greek and Gallo-Roman city were uncovered by painstaking archaeological work.

Thanks to the research of the archaeologists Pierre de Brun and Henri Rolland, Glanum, which is scarcely mentioned by classical authors, has now been given a posthumous future and is today one of the best-known and most spectacular classical sites in France.

The site of Glanum and the surrounding valley. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

The Iron Age Sanctuary of the Salluvii (6th-2nd centuries BC)

At the northern end of the narrow gorge of Notre-Dame-de-Laval, which today connects Saint-Rémy-de-Provence with Maussane-les-Alpilles, a permanent spring has been occupied since Neolithic times and was surrounded by an adjoining Salluvian settlement, Glanum, during the Iron Age from the 6th-2nd century BCE.

The healing waters of that spring gave rise to a Celto-Ligurian civilization, which exceptionally at Glanum, was able to accept and profit from the cultural fashions of the Hellenistic Mediterranean world long before it had to conform to Roman directives.

The so-called Dromos Spring”, which was at the origin of the ancient Glanum. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

Among the offerings thrown into the bassin of the spring and the rocky cave are painted and engraved stone steles, pottery and coins. A Celtic god, Glanis, and his beneficent companions, the “Glanic Mothers”, were believed to inhabit these crystalline healing waters.

At the end of the 2nd or the beginning of the 1st century BCE, a first rampart was complemented by a new wall that doubled the enclosed surface. Some remains of towers have been found. This second fortification might be related to the Germanic invasions (Teutons and Ambrons). They were defeated by the Roman general Marius near Aix-en-Provence in 102 BCE after three years of campaigning, military preparations and civil engineering.

The Golden Age and Roman Conquest (2nd c. BC – early 1st c. BCE)

The Celtic character of Glanum is obvious. However, the proximity of the Greek city of Marseille (Massalia), founded by the Phocaeans in 600 BCE, encouraged contacts between the Rhône delta and Mediterranean civilisations. The powerful aristocratic and warrior families were open to Hellenistic contributions and this gave rise to a new cultural identity, the so-called Gallo-Greek culture, of which Glanum is the finest example known to us.

But increasing tension with Marseille incited the Greeks to ask Rome for help. The Salluvii were defeated by the Roman consul Marcus Fulvius Flaccus in 125 BCE, and again by Gaius Sextius Calvinus in the following year, who also founded Aquae Sextiae (Aix-en-Provence) in 122 BCE.

Glanum’s monuments were destroyed but far from admitting defeat, the local dignitaries started a remarkable building boom, covering Glanum’s narrow valleys with even more impressive houses and public monuments. At the peak of its prosperity, based on the prestige of the healing sanctuary, the city issued silver coins in its own name (Glanikon).

Glanum at the time of the Empire. Reconstruction in the Museum at the site. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

This Golden Age was brought to an abrupt end by a final revolt of the Salluvii in 90 BCE, which was immediately subdued by the Roman consul Caecilius. Most of Glanum’s monuments were demolished and the city took a long time to recover from its ruined state. The first half of the 1st century BCE was a difficult period for the whole of the Provincia (Southern Gaul), in particular Pompey’s bloody expedition in 77 BCE and the regime of the vicious praetor Fonteius.

Glanum, a Prosperous City in Narbonensis (1st c. BC – 3rd c. AD)

In 49 BCE Gaius Julius Caesar seized Marseille and on its confiscated territory he founded the colony of Arelate (Arles) in 45 BCE. Whereas many, like Glanum, were granted Latin rights as oppidum Latinum, only a few were elevated to the more prestigious rank of colony. When Octavian became the emperor Augustus in 27 BCE, he created the province of Narbonensis, which was administered by the Senate from 22 BCE onwards.

Map of cities in southeast Gaul at the beginning of the Empire. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The status of oppidum Latinum allowed Glanum’s aristocracy to acquire the prestigious Roman citizenship by serving as local magistrates, giving them the full civic and political rights of Rome.

Basement of the Temple of Valetudo. This temple bears an inscription noting its construction by Marcus Agrippa. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

They contributed to embellishing the city with urban components as the forum, temples, public baths and buildings for entertainment. Glanum probably received the title of Latin colony, perhaps as early as the Augustan period.

The increasing importance of the official cult of the emperor and his family overshadowed Glanum’s traditional cult of the healing spring at the origin of the city’s prosperity.

In 260 AD Glanum did not survive the Alemannic invasions and its inhabitants abandoned the site and founded a new settlement along the road. In the Merovingian age this belonged to the Abbey of Saint-Rémy in Reims.

In the 4th and 5th centuries AD Glanum became a vast stone quarry and most of its monuments were dismantled. Nothing more is mentioned in the records after AD 1240.

The Rediscovery of the Ancient City

From the 16th century, “Les Antiques” were known to scholars and travellers. King Charles IX made a visit in 1564 and restored the surroundings. In the 19th century the Marquis of Lagoy explored the small valleys of Notre-Dame and Saint-Clerg. Jules Formigé, Historic Monuments architect, initiated the first systematic excavations as late as 1921. Pierre de Brun supervised them for twenty years, excavating the area of the basilica, the houses of the northern quarter and the public baths. At the same time, from 1928 to 1933, Henri Rolland (1887-1970) excavated the Iron Age sanctuary to the south.

Relief on the Mausoleum of Glanum. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Henri Rolland was director of the excavations from 1942 to 1969, which progressed from north to south, i.e. from the forum to the sanctuary in the gorge. We owe this scholar also for the systematic publications, the surveys as well as the public exhibition of the many finds in the “Hotel de Sade” in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence.

The excavations have continued since 1982. A monumental well of the Hellenistic period has been discovered, Glanum’s southern district and the gate of the rampart and the foundations of a temple investigated.

Les Antiques

The mausoleum, a monumental tomb, is situated outside the northern entrance to the city. On the architrave facing the road is an inscribed dedication which tells us that “Sextus, Lucius and Marcus Julius, sons of Gaius, offered this tomb to their parents (SEX.L.M.IVLIEI.C.F.PARENTIBVS.SVEIS). It is likely that the two toga-wearing statues in the tholos at the top are the father and the eldest brother; the mother is not represented, which was normal at that time.

The mausoleum of Glanum. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The tholos is a circular dome in the Corinthian order, sheltering the effigies of two male togati, whose heads were replaced in the 18th century. The frieze is decorated by an ornamental rinceau (ornamental band featuring stylized vines with leaves). The conical roof is covered with scales, common in funeral art, though the ridge acroterion (a decorative stone object that crowned the building) is missing.

The second level consists of an arch with four bays in the Corinthian order (tetrapylon). The archivolts are decorated with acanthus leaves, symbols of perpetual rebirth, and a Gorgon’s head, the protector of the tomb, adorns the keystone.

The epitaph is engraved on the architrave on the north side. On the frieze, Tritons carry the solar disc above the ocean, keeping it away from marine monsters.

The arch is less well preserved than the mausoleum. Dating towards the end of Augustus’ reign (who died in AD 14) the arch is a symbol of Glanum’s municipal dignity and might testify to the status of Latin colony, which the city probably received in this period.

The monumental Arch. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The sculptures exalting the triumph of the victor and the “civilising” mission of the city. There are several panels depicting chained warriors and prisoners, representing defeated ennemies like a defeated Gaul.

Both monuments are situated on the side of the road and are free to visit (no charge).

The Excavations of the Ancient City

Opposite “The Antiques” is the road leading to the entrance of the ancient city. One reach first the visitor center where you can buy the entrance ticket and where is also a shop and a little overviewing exhibition of the site.

First one enters the residential quarter with the public baths, built around the 1st century BCE, modernised at the end of the 1st century AD and embellished with marble during the reign of Lucius Verus (161-169). There are a palaestra, frigidarium, laconicum, hypocausts and a caldarium. To the south is a large swimming pool.

Swimming pool of the Baths. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

Between the baths and the basilica of the forum are the remains of a house with a Doric peristyle and the House of the Capricorn. The two mosaics of that house are now in the Hotel de Sade museum.

House with a Doric peristyle. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Further one reach the Hellenistic Market and the Bona Dea temple, an oracular goddess and assimilated to Cybele. Next the House of the Antae is a characteristic example of a Hellenistic Mediterranean house. Its rooms are distributed in three wings around a courtyard with basin surrounded by porticoes.

Houses along the main street of Glanum. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The House of Atys takes its name from a representation of Cybele’s lover on a marble relief that was found here. Its rooms are arranged around an impluvium, a small and shallow basin cantoned by four columns whose plinths are still preserved.

House of Atys. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

At the opposite hill are some viewpoints overlooking the monumental city centre. An enamel table shows the archaeological remains and illustrates the scale of the twin temples.

View from the hill on the sacred spring and the temple of Jupiter. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

At the monumental center, comprising four successive building phases from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century AD, are a lot of ancient remains of the city like a triumphal fountain, a Hellenistic fountain (?), a theatre (?), a public square, a building with two rooms, a council hall or bouleuterion, a Doric porticus, an exedra, statues of notable Glanices and ramparts.

View from the hill on the monumental center of Glanum. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

There are also the remains of a Hellenistic town hall (?) and further away is the famous Dromos Well. The well (3 metres in diameter) dates from the late 2nd century BCE and its name derives from the 1,5 metre wide, thrice bent passageway or dromos with its 37 steps, which leads down to the water level, some 10 metres under the Hellenistic ground level.

Clear water in the Dromos Well. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

On the way back from the well one reaches the side staircase and the demolished foundations of a small Tuscan temple.

Remains of the Tuscan Temple. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

There are also remains of the courtyard houses (90-30 BCE), the house with the Two Alcoves, the house with Painted Coating and the house of Sulla.

View on the House of Atys, Baths and Basilica. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The two Corinthian Twin Temples were built in the early years of Augustus’ reign (c. 20 BCE) and were part of the first forum.

Reconstruction of the Forum and Twin Temples, in the Museum at the site of Glanum. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

A full description of all the other remains and monuments can be found in the beautiful illustrated guidebook “Glanum, from Salluvian Oppidum to Roman City”, available at the visitor centre in French, English and German.

Partly reconstructed remains of the Twin Temples. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Hotel de Sade in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

The archaeological finds from Glanum are preserved in the Hotel de Sade in the centre of Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. It is a remarkable collection of architectural and figurative sculpture from Gallo-Greek and Gallo-Roman times.

The view of the Hotel de Sade exhibition. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The Hotel de Sade comprises an ensemble of buildings and vestiges from different periods, which was acquired by the French government and listed in 1929. Jules Formigé and Henri Rolland’s excavations and the recent digs have uncovered vast 4th century public thermae, contemporary with the Thermes of Constantin in Arles (Arelate). These buildings were raised and reused in the Middle Ages.

Medieval structures built on top of the ancient Baths. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The major renovation of the site (2004-2015) allows the visitor to explore two thousand years of history and temporary exhibitions featuring the collections discovered in Glanum and studies in a new research centre.

“Potrait of a princess” (Livia ?) exhibited in the Museum. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

Practical Information

The monuments of “Les Antiques” are free to visit next to the road that leads from Maussane -les-Alpilles to Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. There is also a parking lot.

The map of the site of Glanum. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The archaeological site of Glanum is opposite “Les Antiques”, where you have to buy a ticket at the visitor centre. Open October to March from 10 am to 5 pm – April to September from 9.30 am to 6 pm. Closed on Mondays from October to March.

Museum of Glanum. Photo by TimeTravelRome.

The Hotel de Sade is situated at 1, rue du Parage in the centre of Saint-Rémy-de-Provence and is closed on Mondays.

Source: Guidebook “Glanum – from Salluvian Oppidum to Roman City”, available at the visitor centre of Glanum and in the Hotel de Sade.

Header photo: Les Antiques of Glanum, by TimeTravelRome

The Bridging the North Sea Project

The Bridging the North Sea project is a remarkable initiative that aims to connect regions, communities, and academic experts along the North Sea coast. The Roman North Basin had no boundaries as we know them today. The Bridging the North Sea project embraces this concept, working and communicating across modern boundaries. Supported by the Straits Committee, this transnational effort seeks to explore the Roman period in the North Sea basin, shedding light on historical and archaeological discoveries in the region. By bridging the gap between the past and the present, the project endeavors to raise awareness of maritime heritage of the North Sea coast.

Roman Castellum Brittenburg, digital reconstruction by Xinas. Source: https://www.xinas.nl/roman-castellum-brittenburg/

Unveiling the Roman Era

The Bridging the North Sea project brings together experts, scholars, and volunteers from the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. With a focus on the Roman era, this transnational collaboration aims to assemble working groups that connect the local and regional experiences of each partner region. By studying the historical and archaeological aspects of the North Sea basin, the project seeks to reconstruct the ancient landscape and understand its significance within the wider Roman Empire.

Roman relief in the City Museum of Boulogne sur Mer. Photo taken by Michel Gybels.

Themes and Research Areas

The project encompasses various themes and research areas that provide a comprehensive understanding of the North Sea basin in Roman times.

• One crucial aspect is the exploration of sea and waterways, such as the waterway to Aardenburg in Zeeland, the river Tyne in North East England, and the river Rhine in South Holland. These waterways were vital for trade and defense, and the study of Roman castles, fortifications, and vessels/ships offers insights into the Roman coastal defense system.
• Material culture studies play a crucial role in deciphering the meaning behind archaeological finds. Expert meetings in the participating regions foster exchange and collaboration, enabling a deeper understanding of trade routes, cultural exchanges, and the daily lives of coastal communities during the Roman period.

Shield boss of Junius Dubitatus. Roman Britain, early 2nd century AD Found near the mouth of the River Tyne in 1867. Source: British Museum.

• Beach archaeology brings lost sites to life, such as the fleet-castellum near Vrouwenpolder in Zeeland and the fortification Brittenburg near Katwijk in South Holland. By excavating these structures, archaeologists unearth insights into coastal defense systems, settlement patterns, and the impact of changing coastlines on Roman communities.

Timeline of the Project

On the 9th and 10th of May 2023 the kick-off meeting of the Bridging the North Sea project took place in Tilques and Boulogne-sur-Mer (FR), with 15 partners from 8 regions.

The partners have 1,5 years to build the network and complete the goals of the project, and will present the results of their work in June 2024 at a final conference that will be held at the Museumpark Archeon, in Alphen aan den Rijn in the Province of South Holland (NL).

“Bridging the North Sea” project kick off meeting on the 09th of May 2023. Photo by Michel Gybels.

More information about the project can be found here:

https://bridgingthenorthsea.org (EN)

https://straitscommittee.eu (EN-FR-NL)

Source of the header image: The Brittenburg after Abraham Ortelius. This engraving is from Guicciardini’s description of the Netherlands, published from 1582 to 1588. Public Domain.

Paestum was a major ancient Greek city on the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea in Magna Graecia (southern Italy). The ruins of Paestum are famous for their three ancient Greek temples in the Doric order, dating from about 550 to 450 BC, which are in an excellent state of preservation. The city walls and amphitheater are largely intact, and the bottom of the walls of many other structures remain, as well as paved roads. The site is open to the public, and there is a modern national museum within it, which also contains the finds from the associated Greek site of Foce del Sele.

Panoramic view of the Paestum Archaeological site. By V alfano – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

History

Solinus wrote that it was established by Dorians. After its foundation by Greek colonists under the name of Poseidonia (Ancient Greek: Ποσειδωνία), it was eventually conquered by the local Lucanians and later the Romans. The Lucanians renamed it to Paistos and the Romans gave the city its current name. As Pesto or Paestum, the town became a bishopric (now only titular), but it was abandoned in the Early Middle Ages, and left undisturbed and largely forgotten until the eighteenth century.

Artists closing to Paestum from the sea. Jean Jacques François Taurel (1757-1832). Photo by Rama, Cc-by-sa-2.0-fr, CC BY-SA 2.0 fr.

Much of the most celebrated features of the site today are the three large temples in the Archaic version of the Greek Doric order, dating from about 550 to 450 BC. All are typical of the period, with massive colonnades having a very pronounced entasis (widening as they go down), and very wide capitals resembling upturned mushrooms. Above the columns, only the second Temple of Hera retains most of its entablature, the other two having only the architrave in place.

Architectural study of the Athena temple – Delagardette Claude Mathieu – 1798. By Claude-Mathieu Delagardette, Public Domain.

These were dedicated to Hera and Athena (Juno and Minerva to the Romans), although previously they often have been identified otherwise, following eighteenth-century arguments.

Hera I and Hera II (Poseidon) temples. By Magistermercator – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

The two temples of Hera are right next to each other, while the Temple of Athena is on the other side of the town center. There were other temples, both Greek and Roman, which are far less well preserved.

The Athena Temple. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Paestum is far from any sources of good marble. Unsurprisingly, the three main temples had few stone reliefs, perhaps using painting instead. Painted terracotta was used for some detailed parts of the structure. The large pieces of terracotta that have survived are in the museum.

The Archaeological Survey

The whole ancient city of Paestum covered an area of approximately 120 hectares. Only the 25 hectares that contain the three main temples and the other main buildings have been excavated. The other 95 hectares remain on private land and have not been studied.

The ancient city was surrounded by defensive walls, which are largely intact. The walls are approximately 4.75 km long in its polygonal perimeter, typically 15 m high, and 5–7 m thick.

Paestum defensive walls. By Miguel Hermoso Cuesta – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Corresponding with the cardinal points, there were four main openings in the wall: Porta Sirena (east to the hills); Porta Giustizia (south, now to the modern village of Paestum); Porta Marina (west to the sea); and Porta Aurea (north), which was later destroyed. Positioned along the wall were 24 square or round towers. There may have been as many as 28, but some of them (and Porta Aurea) were destroyed during the construction of a highway during the 18th century that effectively cut the ancient site in two.

The central area is completely clear of modern buildings and always has been largely so, since the Middle Ages. Although much stone has been stripped from the site, large numbers of buildings remain detectable by their footings or the lower parts of their walls, and the main roads remain paved. A low-built heroon or shrine memorial to an unknown local hero survived intact; the contents are in the museum. Numerous tombs have been excavated outside the walls.

Three Greek Temples and Other Monuments

The first Temple of Hera, built around 550 BC by the Greek colonists, is the oldest surviving temple in Paestum and the one furthest south. 18th-century archaeologists named it “the Basilica” because some mistakenly believed it to be a Roman building. (The original Roman basilica was essentially a civic form of building, before the basilica plan was adopted by the Early Christians for churches.)

Temple of Hera I. By Norbert Nagel – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Inscriptions and terracotta statuettes revealed that the goddess worshiped here was Hera. Later, an altar was unearthed in front of the temple, in the open-air site usual for a Greek altar. The faithful could attend rites and sacrifices without entering the cella or inner sanctuary.

In the central part of the complex is the Roman Forum, thought to have been built on the site of the preceding Greek agora. On the north side of the forum is a small Roman temple, dated to 200 BC. It was dedicated to the Capitoline Triad, Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.

The Roman Forum of Paestum. By Superchilum – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

To the north-east of the forum is the amphitheater. This is of usual Roman pattern, although much smaller than later examples.

Amphitheater of Paestum. By Lucamato – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Only the western half is visible; in 1930 AD, a road was built across the site, burying the eastern half. It is said by local inhabitants that the civil engineer responsible was tried, convicted and received a prison sentence for what was described as wanton destruction of a historic site.

Aerial photo of the Paestum Amphitheater cut in two by the road. Source : Google Maps.

There is also a small circular council hall (bouleuterion) or assembly space (ekklesiasterion), with seats in tiers. It was probably never roofed, but had a wall around it, perhaps with a small arcade round the inside. This ceased to have a role in Roman times and was filled over.

The ekklesiasterion. By Costaetrusca (Roberto Baroni) – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

The heroon, close to the forum and the Temple of Athena, probably celebrated the founder of the city, though constructed around a century after the death of this unnamed figure. It was a low tumulus with a walled rectangular enclosure faced with large stones around it. When it was excavated in 1954 a low stone chamber with a pitched roof was discovered at the center, half below the surrounding ground level and half above. This contained several large, rare, and splendid bronze vessels, perhaps not locally-made, and a large Athenian pottery black-figure amphora of about 520–500 BC. The bronze vessels had traces of honey inside. These are all now in the museum.

Heroon of Paestum. By Domenicomarconi – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Just south of the city walls, at a site still called Santa Venera, a series of small terracotta offertory molded statuettes of a standing nude woman wearing the polos headdress of Anatolian and Syrian goddesses, which were dated to the first half of the sixth century BC, were found in the sanctuary. Other similar ones have been excavated at other Paestum sanctuaries during excavations in the 1980s. The figure is highly unusual in the Western Mediterranean.

Statuettes from Santa Venera. By Mentnafunangann – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

The Second Tempe of Hera

The second Temple of Hera was built around 460–450 BC, just north of the first Hera Temple. It was once mistakenly thought to be dedicated to Poseidon. Instead of the typical 20 flutes on each column, they have 24 flutes. The Temple of Hera II also has a wider column size and smaller intervals between columns. The temple was also used to worship Zeus and another deity, whose identity is unknown.

Temple of Hera II. By Norbert Nagel – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

There are visible on the east side the remains of two altars, one large and one smaller. The smaller one is a Roman addition, built when a road leading to a Roman forum was cut through the larger one. It also is possible that the temple originally was dedicated to both Hera and Poseidon; some offertory statues found around the larger altar are thought to demonstrate this identification.

Temple of Hera II – Interior view. By Miguel Hermoso Cuesta – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Temple of Athena

On the highest point of the town, some way from the Hera Temples and north of the center of the ancient settlement, is the Temple of Athena. It was built around 500 BC, and was for some time incorrectly thought to have been dedicated to Ceres. The architecture is transitional, being mainly built in early Doric style and partially Ionic. Three medieval Christian tombs in the floor show that the temple was at one time used as a Christian church.

Temple of Athena. By Norbert Nagel – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

The Painted Tombs

Paestum also is renowned for its painted tombs, mainly belonging to the Lucanian period, while only one of them dates to the Greek period. However, this is the Tomb of the Diver, which is the most famous. It is named after the enigmatic scene, depicted on the underside of the covering slab, of a young man diving into a stream of water. It dates to the first half of the fifth century BC (about 470 BC), the Golden Age of the Greek town. It was found, on 3 June 1968, in a small necropolis some 1.5 km south of the ancient walls. The paintings have now been transferred to the Paestum Archaeological museum.

Tomb of the Diver – Cover. By Miguel Hermoso Cuesta – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

The tomb is painted with the true fresco technique and its importance lies in being “the only example of Greek painting with figured scenes dating from the Orientalizing, Archaic, or Classical periods to survive in its entirety. Among the thousands of Greek tombs known from this time (roughly 700–400 BC), this is the only one found to have been decorated with frescoes of human subjects.

Tomb of the diver in Paestum – South wall. Photo by Michel Gybels.

The remaining four walls of the tomb are occupied by symposium-related scenes, an iconography far more familiar from Greek pottery than the diving scene.

Tomb of the diver in Paestum – North wall. By José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro, CC BY-SA 4.0.

All the five frescoes are displayed in the museum, together with other cycles from Lucanian painted tombs. In contrast to earlier Greek tomb paintings, these later scenes have many figures and a high proportion of scenes including horses and equestrian sports.

Lucanian fresco tomb painting depicting a quadriga, 340-330 BC, Paestum Archaeological Museum. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Lucanian Tomb depicting horse riding. Photo by Michel Gybels.

Source: Information brochure of Paestum

Header photo: Panorama of Paestum. By Kisimaa – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,

Like Pompeii and Herculaneum, the Villa Oplontis was both destroyed and preserved by the eruption of the Vesuvius in AD79. Buried until its gradual discovery over the last four centuries, this huge and lavish palace has been associated on slender evidence with Poppaea Sabina, the unfortunate wife said to have been kicked to death by the Emperor Nero. Her family are believed to have come from this area, and the grandeur of the villa suggests it belonged to someone either very rich or very well-connected. A wine amphora found here bore the inscription of the name “Poppaea”. Consequently the villa is sometimes called Villa Poppaea, and is also known as Villa A by archaeologists studying the ruins around the site of the Roman seaside village of Oplontis (and as Scavi di Oplonti in Italian).

The villa and its garden. By Miguel Hermoso Cuesta – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Lying under the modern Naples suburb Torre Annunziata, the full extent of the villa complex hasn’t been discovered. But what there is to see is very impressive. The site is under-visited compared to its famous neighbors, and it is a fascinating and atmospheric place to get the feel of real Roman luxury.

Peristyle of the villa. Picture by Michel Gybels.

The villa is included in the UNESCO heritage listing “Archaeological Areas of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Torre Annunziata”. The villa makes a good complement to visiting Pompeii and Herculaneum. The impressive state of preservation and the villa’s lavishness help to give context to the urban dwellings in the two larger sites, and its colourful frescoes enable the visitor to visualize the details which have been lost elsewhere.

History

The Roman elite favoured the Bay of Naples for holiday retreats. Just as today’s wealthy Romans and Neapolitans head to the island of Capri, in ancient times this area was a refuge from the heat and bustle of Rome in summer and a place to relax and indulge in civilized leisure; the pursuit of otium. The Villa Oplontis was a palace built overlooking the sea (the coastline is now further away).

Reconstruction of the villa by Jean-Claude Govain. Source: https://jeanclaudegolvin.com/oplontis/

Archaeologists deduce that the rambling building had been through several stages of development, and at the time of the eruption which buried it, the villa was undergoing restoration works, and was perhaps somewhat neglected. There had been a major earthquake in 62AD, and many smaller tremors in the build-up to the big eruption of 79AD, which may explain this.

A map showing the cities, which were affected by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. By MapMaster – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

During its lifespan, though, the villa must have been one of the grandest dwellings in the area. Its wall paintings are some of the finest examples of Roman painting in existence. Its large gardens were decorated with statues as well as trees and plants. Approached by land or sea, the villa would have impressed visitors even before they entered the colourful and refined halls, strolled through its various colonnades, or glimpsed the huge garden swimming pool.

Plan of Villa A at Oplontis with the trenches marked in red. The area marked in yellow highlights the portico that was demolished to accommodate the east wing. The Sarno Canal and the pool basin are respectively marked in purple and blue. Plan: Jess Galloway. Source: Ten seasons of Excavation at Oplontis.

The ruins are well-enough preserved that it’s possible to gain some idea of how people might have lived here; relaxing under a portico, taking a dip in the huge pool. Rooms are numbered and descriptions in the guide-booklet help to explain the decoration and what is assumed about their uses.

The Architecture of the Villa

Among the villa’s comforts was a bath-house, several peristyles (colonnaded courtyards and gardens), and a range of richly-painted reception rooms.

Peristyle on the south facade. By Amadalvarez – Own work, CC BY 3.0.

The most extravagant of these feature detailed illusionistic scenes of architectural features: temples, statues, gateways.

Trompe-l’oeil frescoes in the triclinium. Picture by Michel Gybels.

The villa layout also incorporates service areas: small rooms where slaves may have slept, and narrow corridors providing quick and discreet access between the public spaces. These narrower, humbler corridors are decorated with simple ‘zebra-stripe’ paintwork, used here and elsewhere for the quarters of slaves and staff – although here the ‘cheap’ décor does seem used on occasion for loftier public areas.

One of the corridors of the villa. By Ra Boe – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Mostly, it’s clear how much the villa was designed to impress, and how dazzling its grandest spaces must have been. Most visitors would have entered through an atrium (Room 1) with a central pool to catch water falling through an aperture in the ceiling in the center, and walls covered with trompe l’oeil frescoes of columns, doorways and other grand architectural features.

A fresco with two false doors in the atrium of the Villa Poppaea. By Tierceron – CC BY-SA 2.0.

One of the most striking spaces is Room 18, described as a ‘sitting room’, which opened onto the portico in front of the swimming pool and its surrounding garden. At the far side of the room was a large window onto the principal garden of the villa. And on either side, a sequence of windows opened onto rooms richly-painted with garden scenes, and then beyond that into tiny ‘garden’ courtyards, again decorated with garden frescoes. Trees, greenery, flowers, birds and water must have been visible in every direction, both painted and real, with nature being brought into the interiors.

Garden courtyard of the villa. Picture by Michel Gybels.

Although there must have been slaves, attendants and family members around, it’s hard not to imagine the building filled with the same kind of peace that greets the visitor today as they wander around the quiet site, accompanied by the twittering of birds and the wind in the grass and leaves. The work that has been done to recreate the original garden plantings adds greatly to the atmosphere, which is so different to the busier and barer ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Room 15, east wall, painting of the Delphic tripod. Picture by Michel Gybels.

The freedom to wander around a grand Roman villa over mosaic floors, to stand alone in a room gazing at the vivid frescoes, or to duck along a narrow service corridor is really special.

The Archaeological Excavations

The identification of the excavation site of the Villa took place at the end of the 16th century during the construction of the Sarno Canal, excavated by Count Muzio Tuttavilla in the area of what is known today as Fabbrica d’Armi as well as near the port.

In the eighteen century, riding the wave of the enthusiasm for the recent discoveries of Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabia, the Bourbon government promoted archaeological research initiatives through out the Vesuvian territory and the first excavation was attempted in Mascatelle for the Torre Annunziata area.

Layers of volcanic ash in the area of the villa. By Ra Boe – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0.

In 1785 Francesco La Vega, the military architect in charge of the excavations, reported having inspected the ruins identified here. Other investigations took place in 1839 who made it possible to fully comprehend the great importance of the area.

The excavation of Oplontis was no longer discussed for more than a century, until a committee of local enthusiasts managed to bring attention to the site. Ten years of uninterrupted excavations brought to light a building that had 90 rooms spread over 10,000 square meters.

Fresco in the Baths part of the villa – Calidarium. Picture by Michel Gybels.

In 1974, about 300 meters east of Villa A, workers found the Villa B of Lucius Crassius Tertus. In one of the rooms of this complex, in 1984, a treasure trove of jewels and coins, the so-called Oplontis Golds, was found. The building is currently closed to the public.

Practical Information

The Villa Oplontis is included in several combined tickets, so visitors should think ahead to work out the most cost-effective choice. A basic entrance ticket also includes admission to archaeological sites at Stabia and Boscoreale. The villa is also included on a combined ticket with Herculaneum and Pompeii (the sites are administered together), and as one of the free sites with a Campania Arte Card.

Rooms in the villa are numbered and a good pamphlet, available in English and included with your ticket, provides descriptions and explanations for each featured location.

The archaeological site is a few minutes’ walk from the Torre Annunziata station of the Circumvesuviana train which runs from Naples to Sorrento. From Napoli Garibaldi the journey takes 30 minutes, and from Sorrento 33 minutes.

You can see the site quite thoroughly in an hour, and it can be combined with Herculaneum in a comfortable one-day itinerary.

Source: Guide to the Oplontis excavations

Header picture: Detail of the fresco. By Falk2 – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Written by Michel Gybels for Time Travel Rome