Virgil, Aeneid. Book VIII (translation by A.S. Kline)

Agrippa is one of the greatest men of Ancient Rome. His lifetime accomplishments were spectacular and his heritage is incredibly rich even two thousand years after his death. However, only a few Roman coins issued during his lifetime bear his portrait or name. This is due to the role that money played at the time of the Roman Empire. In addition to being a means of payment, coins were also a form of propaganda. As this centered around the person of Octavian, and later his family, other subjects or persons, with rare exceptions, had no place on Rome’s coins.

Yet numerous coins were dedicated to Agrippa or bear his name. Below are some of these coins, each linked to a relevant ancient roman place or monument.     

Crocodile on coins from Nîmes

The founding of Nîmes in southern Gaul goes back to the sixth century BC. At this time, Volcae Arecomici, a Celtic tribe, settled there around a spring and built a sanctuary. In 120 BC, the Volcae accepted the Roman legions without resistance, eventually giving birth to the town of Nemausa.

The development of the city surged during the imperial times when the city became a roman colony. After the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, marking the victory of Octavian and Agrippa over the fleets of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra, Octavian demobilized some of his legions and many veterans came to settle in Nîmes. The city changed status in 24 BC, becoming a Roman colony under the name of “Colonia Augusta Nemausus.” The very important minting that started from 27 BC shows the commercial dynamism of the city which became one of the richest in the region.

The famous dupondius struck in Nemausus starting in 27 BC depicts back-to-back heads of Augustus and Agrippa and legend IMP DIVI F on the obverse, and a crocodile chained to a palm, flanked by legend COL NEM, on the reverse. Agrippa and Augustus appear together on these coins because they were the patrons of Nîmes. Agrippa is also believed to be the architect of Nîmes’ main architectural features. On the reverse of the coin, the crocodile chained to a palm tree symbolizes Egypt’s submission to Rome.

The palm is an attribute of Apollo, the “patron” god of Octavian, a sanctuary in Apollo was also located opposite the site of the Battle of Actium. Many of these coins have also an abbreviation P.P. on them (as on the coin below – beside Augustus and Agrippa’s portraits). The abbreviation is believed to mean “Patronus Parentes” reflecting the role that Augustus and Agrippa jointly played in the prosperity of the colony. 

Dolphins on coins from Nicopolis

Besides Nîmes, numerous cities and towns in Italy, Spain, Greece, and throughout the East dedicated statues to Agrippa, selected him as patron, and bestowed honorary offices upon him (“Marcus Agrippa. A Biography”, Meyer Reinhold pp. 102-103).

One of such cities was Nikopolis (var: Nicopolis) in Epirus. Named as the “City of Victory,” Augustus founded Nikopolis to “extend the fame of his victory at Actium and to perpetrate its memory” (Suetonius, Aug. 18,2). The foundation of Nikopolis was not dictated solely by the desire to commemorate the victory. It also served a strategic purpose guarding the narrowest point of the peninsula which closes the Gulf of Arta.

Bronze coins minted there depict Agrippa’s bare head on the obverse, while the reverse shows a dolphin entwined around a trident. The reverse of the coin is a clear allusion to the naval victories of Agrippa at Actium. Sea-related symbols represent a recurring pattern in Agrippa heritage. The colossal statue in Venice shows Agrippa leaning on a dolphin and dolphins. Cockle-shells, and tridents decorated the friezes of his Baths in Rome. Agrippa even installed seven bronze dolphins to mark laps for the charioteers on the Circus Maximus.

Empty seat on Rostra

The Rostrum that can be seen today was installed on its current location by Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Then, around 29 BC, Augustus modified the structure. He extended the curved platform backwards to form a rectangle. Augustus also built a second rostrum in 29 BC in front of the Temple of Caesar. This structure also decorated with the prows of galleys captured during the great naval Battle of Actium. During this battle, Augustus’s fleet destroyed the forces of Marc Antony and Cleopatra. His victory cleared the way to his absolute power.

It is possible that coin below depicts this second rostrum as it then appeared. Indeed, this denarius was struck in 13 BC, after the second rostrum was built and only three prows can be seen here, while the “old” rostrum counted six. In addition, the coin is related to Agrippa, who was instrumental in the Actium victory. It is believed that the coin commemorates the renewal of Agrippa’s appointment as tribune (his first appointment was in the 18 BC) together with Augustus, but the whole series of coins struck in 13 BC suggests that the ambition was even broader: Agrippa was positioned on these coins as Octavian’s heir.   

Coins with the portrait of Augustus on one side and Agrippa on the other were produced in the year of 13 BC under supervision of the same moneyer, C. Sulpicius Platorinus. Augustus and Agrippa appear bare-headed. Some other rarer issues, including an aureus (header photo), depict Agrippa wearing a combined mural & rostral crown which Augustus gave him.

Agrippa was Augustus’s heir apparent and these coins emphasized his role. Unfortunately he died prematurely the year after. The coin struck in 12 BC – one year after previous ones – shows an unoccupied tribunal seat. This coin honors in a visual and emotional way the absence of the closest and most trustworthy friend of Octavian – Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa…

What to See in Nîmes now ?

Modern-day Nimes offers a remarkably rich array of ancient Roman architecture. The amphitheater near the heart of Nimes is one of the better preserved. It ranks as the seventh largest such structure from the ancient world. To the northwest of this theater, one will find the Maison Carée, a first-century temple originally dedicated to Augustus’ heirs Gaius and Lucius Caesar and recognized today as one of the best-preserved Roman temples outside of Rome itself. Those venturing out of the city can also find one of the best examples of ancient Roman engineering in the form of the aqueduct. The Pont du Gard, often associated with Nimes but situated roughly 30 kilometers away, has transversed the Gardon River since the first century CE. 

Nîmes on Timetravelrome App:

The app offers a description of all main Roman monuments that can be seen in today’s Nimes. They are located on the map and and a description is provided for each place.

Sources:

1/ « La formule P-P des as de Nemausus », Revue des Études Anciennes, 1940

2/ « Auguste et l’Asie Mineure », textes recueillis par Laurence Cavalier et autres. Ausonius Editions, 1997

3/ “The Coinage of Nicopolis”, Colin Kraay, The Numismatic Chronicle (1966-) Vol. 16, 1976.

4/ “Marcus Agrippa. A Biography”, Meyer Reinhold. Geneva, New York: The W. F. Humphreys Press, 1932.

Author: Timetravelrome

Header image: Aureus. Obv: Head of Augustus, wearing oak-wreath, right. Rev: Head of Agrippa, wearing combined mural and rostral crown, right. Moneyer: C Sulpicius Platorinus. Soirce: British Museum.

The capital of the UK is today embroiled in a tempestuous storm over its position within the wider European community as the Brexit debate rumbles incessantly on. Some 1700 years ago, the city was the stage for another attempt at political separation. This is the story of the revolt of Carausius.

Rebellion

The 3^rd century AD is a challenging era for classicists and ancient historians to study. An endemic weakening of the Roman Empire in the face of external pressures led to a rapid turnaround of emperors and pronounced political and social turmoil. Bloodshed, usurpation, and revolt were common sites in the political landscape. The turbulence was manifest most clearly at the edges of Empire, with a usurper state – the Gallic Empire of the Emperor Postumus – having been established in 260 AD already. Although Gaul, Hispania, and Britain were restored to Roman control by the Emperor Aurelian – most famous for his eponymous circuit of defensive walls around Rome – in 274, the precedent had been set.

In 286 AD, the command of the regional navy in the English channel was given to Carausius. His elevation to the position of admiral crowed a rags to riches story for a man of humble origins. His task, as admiral of the fleet based at Bonoia (modern Boulogne), was to clear the English Channel of Saxon and Frankish raiders and bolster the imperial frontiers against these incursions. Carausius however, was accused of collaboration with the raiders, motivated by financial greed. The Emperor Maximian – who was at this time the Augustus and western colleague of Diocletian – ordered the admiral to be put to death. Rather than accept his fate, Carausius declared himself the Emperor of Britain, separating the province from centralised imperial control. With just the fleet, three legions stationed in Britain, one from neighbouring Gaul, and a scattering of auxiliary units from cross the Empire, Carausius set to the task of presenting his Empire of Britain as a viable, legitimate alternative to Rome.

Becoming British, Remaining Roman?

“Disorder thus prevailed throughout the world, while Carausius was taking arms in Britain…”[1]

The 3^rd century is notoriously problematic to explore thanks to a dearth of quality sources, both textual and material. Fortunately, numismatics – ancient coinage – can provide crucial insight into this turbulent period of history. Carausius is known to have appealed to native British discontent with Roman rule, and began minting his own coinage, many of which had legends on them that championed the island province. These included coins that referred to the new ‘Emperor’ as Restitutor Britanniae (the restorer of Britain), whereas others would depict him with Britannia, the personified deity who symbolised the province.

In this denarius of Carausius, one can see the emperor’s portrait on the obverse, whilst on the reverse, one can see Britannia on the right (note her flowing robes) clasping hands with the cuirassed emperor. This was a clear symbol of the usurper’s proclaimed dedication to the island province.

It is nevertheless notable that Carausius seemingly maintained strong ideological links to the Roman Empire as well. In his numismatic presentation he is presented in terms and images that are recognisably Roman, whilst the coins themselves were brought into line with Roman issues. Elsewhere, his epigraphic representation is very reminiscent of Roman tradition, as is indicated by the discovery of a milestone dedicated to Carausius uncovered in Carlisle, at the very edges of the Empire.[2] The usurper’s influence seemingly held sway over the entirety of the province, so it is surprising that his attempted break from the Empire was keen to retain so many recognisably Roman features.

Retaliation

Carausius secession from the Empire was to be short lived. By 293 the Tetrarchs had mobilised, with the Constantius Chlorus – the father of the future Constantine the Great – was tasked with re-establishing imperial control over northern Gaul and Britain. He achieved this by first isolating Britain; by suffocating the Channel – such as through a siege of the port of Bononia – Constantius prevented aid getting into Britain, or rebels getting out. Although no invasion could take place yet, the pressure would prove too much for some: Allectus, who had been acting as treasurer for Carausius, murdered the ‘Emperor’ of Britain and assumed command himself. Three years later, the reconquest of the province of Britain could begin in earnest. The imperial forces landed near to modern Southampton. After burning their ships, they quickly routed the bulk of the rebel forces, including Allectus himself. Archaeologists have identified Calleva Atrebatum (modern Silchester) as a likely site of the rebel’s defeat. The remnants of the rebellious forces were hunted down, with many of them being caught and massacred in Londinium as they were sacking the city, the capital of the island then as now.

Although it is doubtful as to whether Constantius himself ever made it across the Channel in time for the initial battle and subsequent rout, he nevertheless ensured that he took centre stage in the resultant celebrations. Whereas just over a decade previously, Carausius had been proclaiming himself the ‘Restorer’ of Britain, now Constantius was proclaiming himself the Liberator of the island. Again, numismatic evidence provides clear evidence of this:

One can see on the coin above Constantius, mounted, being received by a grateful citizen of the city of Londinium (LON is visible just beneath the knees of the native). An electrotype of this rare coin is stored in the British Museum.

As well as celebrating the event on coinage, it would appear that Constantius undertook some efforts to restore Londinium following the destruction it suffered at the hands of Allectus’ followers. A set of thermae, a bathhouse – were built in the forum in around 300 AD. Although comparatively modest in size – especially when compared to other thermae from around the Empire – their construction nevertheless served to symbolise the re-imposition of Roman imperial culture back on to the city and the island more generally.

What to see in Londinium now:

The history of ancient Londinium can be found all over a modern city that generally celebrates its past and makes it accessible and engaging to visitors. The British Museum has a wealth of material relating to ancient history, including Roman Britain, and it should be a priority on any visit. Similarly, the Museum of London is excellent, providing a chronological biography of the city, including a detailed history of Roman Londinium. The displays and material provide an excellent account of the urban development of Londinium, which was situated on the north bank of the Thames, becoming in time the capital of an imperial province. At this museum, one can see a wealth of archaeological material that is clearly laid-out to give visitors a sense of what life would have been like in the ancient city. In the Guildhall Art Gallery, one is able to use digital technology to explore the Amphitheatre which was once in the centre of the ancient city.

Around the city itself there are scattered traces of the ancient world. As one would expect, the expansive modernisation of the city has led to material being lost or decontextualized. Using the TimeTravelRome app will help you navigate between sites, including the remains of the ancient roads, defensive walls and gatehouses that are still standing to the north west, with Cripple Gate being perhaps the best preserved for visitors to explore. Towards the east of the ancient city, one can see the remains of the 3^rd century Billingsgate Bath house. The ancient structure is still in a state of reasonably good preservation, and visitors are able to identify the main features of a typical Roman thermae, including the frigidarium (the cold room), the caldarium (hot room), and the traces of the hypocaust heating system.

Most recently, London’s Mithraeum has re-opened to the public after extensive renovation works on the exhibit. This is arguably the highlight of a tour of Roman Londinium. The material associated with this eastern mystery cult – most notably the incredible tauroctony relief showing the god Mithras slaying the bull – is excellently curated and contextualised for visitors. A trip to London’s Mithraeum serves as an excellent reminder of the connections and processes of cultural exchange that occurred right across the ancient Empire.

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[1] Eutropius, Breviarium, 6.22 (http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm)

[2] RIB2291, https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/2291

Author: Kieren Johns for Timetravelrome

Header picture: Carausius, 286 -293. Aureus, Londinium October 286-March 287. Obv.: Laureate, draped and cuirassed bust Rev.: Pax standing holding olive branch and vertical sceptre. Auction 114; lot 599. Used by permission of NAC.

A few words about temple’s history

Allegedly, the temple was first vowed by L. Furius Camillus in 367 BC upon the reconciliation between patricians and plebeians. But it is more likely that it was actually built in 304, restored in 217 BC, and then again in 121 BC after the assassination of the Gracchi brothers. Finally, between 7 BC and 10 AD, Tiberius fully renovated the temple and rededicated it to the Concordia Augusta. It was an unusual shrine, wider (45 m) than long (24 m), with a pronaos of six Corinthian columns. Based on a fragment of the Severan Marble Plan also known as the Forma Urbis Romae, the cella was characterized by a continuous plinth supporting columns which formed several niches. The Corinthian capitals of the cella were beautifully carved with leaping rams and the temple was filled with works of art. As can be seen on Tiberius sestertii of 35/36 AD, the frontal staircase was flanked by two sculptures, probably Greek originals, of Hercules and Mercury.

A temple like no other: a Museum of ancient art  

In addition to its superior beauty and its unusual shape, the temple stands out from other temples in Rome for another reason, namely because of a large number of ancient art masterpieces that were preserved inside of it. Here is a short list of masterpieces that were kept in the temple of Concord, as listed in the “Pliny on Art and Society” by Jacob Isager, published by Routledge in 1992:

Bronze statues and groups of statues:

• Latona with the Apollo as child and and Diana by Euphranor
• Jupiter, Minerva and Ceres by Sthennis
• Mars and Mercury by Piston
• Apollo and Juno by Baton
• Aesculapius and Salus by Niceratus

Famous paintings:  

• The bound Marsyas by Zeuxis
• Dionysus by Nicias
• Cassandra by Theodorus

Besides that, the Temple hosted a statue of Vesta that was sold to Tiberius by Rhodos, four elephants made of obsidian dedicated by Octavian and a sardonyx that once belonged to Polycrates of Samos. One may ask why so many masterpieces were stored in the Concordia temple and not elsewhere. The answer to this question is given to us by the sestertius struck under Tiberius.

If you like this blog post, you will probably like our mobile app TimeTravelRome, the most comprehensive mobile app about ancient Rome. Learn more about it here.

The Temple of Concord on the Tiberius Coin  

Indeed, a Sestertius struck under Tiberius helps us to understand why the temple was chosen for the conservation of spectacular masterpieces of the ancient art. One can see that the central entrance of the temple is flanked by two large rectangular windows that have lighted the interior space of the Temple, thus making it suitable for the exhibition of dark bronze statues.  The statue of Concordia, executed in bright marble, provided a stunning contrast to other Greek statues executed in dark bronze. It is likely that the temple – in its renovated form –was designed by Tiberius architects as an exhibition room aimed at glorifying emperor’s artistic taste, financed by German military campaigns. The coin below shows perfectly two big rectangular windows on the facade of the temple:

Unfortunately, we can’t speak of “coins” (in plural) with the effigy of the temple of Concord, because its appearance is known mainly thanks to just one monetary issue, that of Tiberius. However, this single coin is exceptional in terms of the details, which allows us to imagine very well the actual appearance of the temple.

Two other examples of this rare coin can be seen on the websites of the Ashmolean and of the British museums.

What to see there now:

On site, only the large platform remains, next to the temple of Vespasian and Titus, but one of the inner capitals is on display at the Forum Antiquarium. While visiting the Musei Capitolini, it is also possible to reach the great corridor of the Tabularium, overlooking the Forum, and admire a fine piece of the marble architrave of the temple, which is there preserved.  

Temple of Concordia on Timetravelrome app:

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Author: TTR. The write-up about the Temple of Concord was done by Alexander Meddings.

Sources:

• Gérald Cariou. Les trois temples de l’extrémité nord-occidentale du forum romain : reconstitution architecturale et simulation topographique. Virtual Retrospect 2005, Robert Vergnieux, Nov 2005, Biarritz, France. pp.96-101.

• “Pliny on Art and Society” by Jacob Isager, published by Routledge in 1992.

Header photo: Numismatica Ars Classica NAC AG; Auction 114; lot 599. Used by permission of NAC. and Reconstruction of the Temple of Concord. From the article “Les trois temples de l’extrémité nord-occidentale du forum romain : reconstitution architecturale et simulation topographique”. By Gérald Cariou. Article in the public domain.

Move to Thermopylae

Antiochus III was the sixth ruler of the Seleucid Empire. While his predecessors had shown no great flair for conquest, Antiochus was a reflection of the first great ruler of the empire, Seleucus I Nicator. After successfully retaking Coele-Syria from the Ptolemies, Antiochus turned his attention to Greece. Philip V of Macedonia had recently lost the Second Macedonian War with Rome. Frustrated and forced to pay indemnities to Rome, Philip was a prospective ally. Although the Roman Senate made a great show of declaring Greece free, they had left several garrisons in key cities. So when the Aetolian League invited Antiochus to invade and deliver Greece, the Seleucid King was eager to accept. Despite the advice of the exiled Carthaginian general Hannibal, taking refuge at the Seleucid court, Antiochus moved quickly into Greece. He expected that the Grecian city-states would flock to his cause.

Antiochus enjoyed some early success. He took the city of Chalcis from the Roman garrison, marrying a young girl that he fell in love with and spending the winter there feasting and resting. Yet as he moved out of the city in the spring, he found himself outnumbered. Rome had sent 20,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 15 war elephants under the command of Manius Acilius Glabrio. Additionally, all besides the Aetolian League either remained neutral or joined the Romans, even Philip. Antiochus decided to position his army defensively in the gap at Thermopylae. Following in the footsteps of the Spartans, he hoped that the bottleneck of the pass would decrease the advantage of the enemy’s superior numbers.

New Battle Tactics

However, he also knew his history. For when the three hundred Spartans and their Greek allies had defended the pass, they were overcome after the Persians learned of a small footpath that allowed them to flank the Greek forces. Aware of this, Antiochus ordered the small detachment of Aetolian soldiers, currently stationed in Heraclea, to guard the footpath. Unfortunately, only about 2,000 of them followed his commands. The rest decided to remain safely in Heraclea and await the outcome of the battle.

Manius brought his forces up, and the two sides clashed in pitched battle. Initially, Antiochus and his army fared well, but the Roman army was a dangerous opponent. The Seleucid Empire was one of the kingdoms formed by a former general of Alexander the Great. The army subsequently fought in the deadly sarissa phalanx that had made the Macedonians the conquerors of the world. The phalanx was a formidable barrier, but only in a solid formation and in a single direction. In close, hand-to-hand combat, it was far less effective.

In contrast to this, the Roman army enabled both styles. Polybius explained how “the order of battle used by the Roman Army is very difficult to break through, since it allows every man to fight both individually and collectively; the effect is to offer a formation that can present a front in any direction, since the maniples that are nearest to the point where danger threatens wheel in order to meet it.” Additionally, the Roman generals remained out of direct action in the battle, allowing them to direct their several ranks and keep a flow of fresh soldiers entering the fray against their fatigued enemies.

Antiochus Defeated

In that infamous pass at Thermopylae, the Roman Army slowly wore down the main body of the Seleucids. Meanwhile Manius, who was equally familiar with the battlefield’s history, sent his two two senior legates, Lucius Valerius Flaccus and Marcus Porcius Cato, to the old footpath. Though Flaccus’s forces fell back, Cato’s dislodged the token force of Aetolians defending the secret route. Like the Persians before them, they circled around the Seleucid lines and attacked from the rear. As a result, the phalanx shattered, and the men fled in a panic. According to the ancient sources, 10,000 Seleucids died in the battle, with a loss of only 200 Romans. Antiochus withdrew from Greece with what remained of his men.

The following year, a Seleucid fleet commanded by Hannibal suffered a crushing defeat. Following some skirmishes in Asia Minor, the land armies met for a final, definitive battle at Magnesia. There, Antiochus and the Seleucids faced off against a coalition force of Romans and their allies from Pergamon. The Roman commander was Lucius Cornelius Scipio, the younger brother of the famous Scipio Africanus, who was himself serving as his brother’s second-in-command. The battle was a decisive victory for Rome. Antiochus was subsequently forced to withdraw from much of Asia Minor and negotiate a peace that left him heavily in debt. Rome gained further control of Greece, and her allies received the former Seleucid territories in Asia Minor.

What to see in Thermopylae now :

Extensive silting has dramatically altered the layout of the area, so much so that the once formidable “Hot Gates” would now make for fairly easy passage for an invading army. Archaeologists have uncovered some burials, along with a number of Persian artefacts such as bronze arrowheads. Of the sanctuary, only the traces of a few monuments have been uncovered, including of a stoa and a stadium. Of interest in the stadium there is the unusual construction at the western end of the stadium, which is believed to have been designed to keep the winter rains from washing out the floor.

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Author: written for Timetravelrome by Marian Vermeulen.

Sources: Appian, The Syrian Wars; Livy, History of Rome.

Header Photo: Antiochos III ‘the Great’. 222-187 BC. AR Tetradrachm (29mm, 16.96 g, 12h). Antioch on the Orontes mint. Struck circa 204-197 BC. 
Source: Classical Numismatic Group, www.cngcoins.com, used by permission of CNG.

“Meta” was a tall conical structure that stood on either side of chariot racing tracks, while the Latin word “Sudans” stands for sweating. The Meta Sudans in the Valley of the Coliseum was once an imposing, conically-shaped fountain that seemed to sweat water. It stood at the juncture of four of the city’s Augustan regions (I, III, IV and X). Just like the metae of the chariot racing tracks, the Meta Sudans also served a pivotal purpose. The difference was that, rather than being jutting structure a charioteer had to steer around, it marked the point where a triumphal procession would wheel left from the Via Triumphalis, onto the Via Sacra, and into the Roman Forum.

Meta Sudans history

It was long believed that Meta Sudans was built under Flavians, together with other great monuments that included Coliseum. Indeed, the fountain was built on the newly created piazza besides Coliseum, where parts of the Nero’s Domus Area once stood. However, excavations conducted in 2002 have proven that the new fountain was not entirely new: it was actually a reconstruction of an earlier fountain built under Augustus. Archeologists found remains of the earlier fountain six meters below Met Sudans built later by Flavians. The size of the original Augustus fountain was not big, just 4×5 meters, but it had the same conical shape that the later structure had and it was located nearly at the same place.

Besides its spatial importance, Meta Sudans built under Augustus possibly had some religious connotation: its shape reminds the Apollo’ baetyl, a sacred stone associated with the cult of Apollo. Augustus regarded Apollo as his patron therefore the construction of a fountain of this conical shape was probably intentional.

There are no visible remains of the Augustus’ fountain and the Meta Sudans fountain whose remains are visible today was built during the late first century by Flavian Emperors: Vespasian, Domitian and Titus. Flavian Emperors transformed the area formerly occupied by Nero’s Domus Area into a public place with imperial monuments built on it, including the fountain. The re-building was necessary as the whole area was greatly impacted by two fires: the “great fire” of 64 AD and another one, in the 68 AD, that destroyed Capitolium. Vespasian launched the reconstruction of the Capitolium to portray himself as guardian of Roman traditions. He used money from the war with Judea to drain the man-made Nero’s lake, he started the construction of the Amphitheater (Coliseum) and other big works. Archaeological excavations have demonstrated that fountain’ construction started when the nearby Amphitheater works were well advanced i.e. under Titus. Ancient authors attributed the construction of Meta Sudans to Domitian, but it is likely that he has just finished works started by his elder brother Titus.

Meta Sudans on coins

Meta Sudans can be seen on the famous sestertius struck under Titus in 81-82 AD. Sure, the main object here is Coliseum, as it was dedicated by Titus in 80 AD, but it is noteworthy that Meta Sudans finds its place on the coin too even if it was most likely unfinished at this date. Meta Sudans was the most prominent monument that Coliseum spectators used to see before and after circus shows, especially those who used the western entrance gate.

There is another known representation of Rome’s Meta Sudans on a dupondius struck under Titus. There are only a few such coins in existence and there are doubts whether they are authentic. The British Museum, which holds one of these coins, is unambiguous: it is a fake. The reverse is likely tooled from a statue of Spes or the coin was cast in Renaissance times, alongside other numerous fantasy coins depicting the Coliseum and Meta Sudans.

Meta Sudans appeared on coins struck in Rome for more than one hundred years. It is depicted on a rare medaillon struck under Severus in 224 AD. This coin was issued to commemorate the re-dedication of the Amphitheater in 224 AD, as it was partly rebuilt after a fire of 217 AD.   

Meta Sudans in other cities of the Empire

Meta Sudans in Rome has inspired the construction of similar fountains in other parts of the Empire. There was a conical fountain in Cuicul (now Djemila) in Algeria and two others in Corinth and Nikopolis in Epirus. The latter two fountains were represented on coins minted locally. The coin shown below was struck in Corinth under Hadrian in 117-138 AD. The existence of the fountain in Corinth is not attested from the archaeological point of view, so the coin is the only proof of its existence. A similar coin also with a conical fountain was struck in Nikopolis.

Meta Sudans, the Arch of Constantine and the Sun God

Meta Sudans played an interesting role in the positioning of the Arch of Constantine. This Arch was built between 312 and 315 AD to celebrate Constantine victory over Maxentius. It was constructed at the end of one of the longest stretches of the Via Triumphalis. The position of the Arch is not perfectly aligned to the Via Triumphalis axis: it is “twisted” some 7 degrees counter-clockwise. This is due to a mis-alignement between the ancient triumphal road and newer structures in the Colosseum Valley, which followed the contours of the Nero’s Domus Aurea. Flavians demolished the Domus Aurea, but they preserved the Neronian axis.

But the Arch was displaced even further, and this was because of the Meta Sudans itself. Indeed, its ancient alignment with the triumphal road meant that any arch in front of it would direct towards the center of the fountain. But Constantine didn’t want his triumphal troops to march into a fountain! His architects did two things: they built the Arch not over the road but a bit further north and they shifted the monument about two meters to the east. The displacement may seem minor, but it had spectacular visual effects. First, Meta Sudans was not visible anymore from the road; second, the Arch gate was now oriented straight to the Nero’ Colossus, transformed into Sol (Sun God) by Nero successors and placed there by Hadrian in 128 AD.

At some point the entire Colossus-Sol figure was visible through the central passageway – still not obstructed by Meta Sudans.

What to see there now

In its heyday, the Meta Sudans would have towered 20 meters above the ancient street level. Even photographs of the nineteenth century show that the central foundation of the Meta Sudans had a height of at least nine meters. The monument was popular among Renaissance and later artists: there are many paintings where it can be seen.

Sadly, however, all that remains of this once great structure today are its concrete foundations. By the twentieth century only the structure’s brick core remained, and even this was on borrowed time: in 1936 Mussolini had it hurriedly cleared to make more space for his fascist parades. Excavated in the 1980s and in early 2000’s, you can see Meta Sudans remains just jutting out from the grass on the Coliseum side of the Arch of Constantine.

Meta Sudans on Timetravelrome app:

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Authors: Timetravelrome. Parts of the text were edited by Alexander Medding.  

Sources:

• “La meta sudans augustea: note per una sua ricostruzione”, THIASOS, 2013. Available online.
•  “Roma – Meta Sudans. I Monumenti. La Scava. La Storia”. Sabina Zeggio and Giacomo Pardini. The Journal of Fasti Online. The digital copy is available online.
• “Reflections of Imperialism: The Meta Sudans in Rome and the Provinces”, Brenda Longfellow, The Art Bulletin, Vol. 92, No. 4 (December 2010), pp. 275.
• “Framing the Sun: The Arch of Constantine and the Roman Cityscape” by Elizabeth Marlowe. Art Bulletin, June 2006. 

Header Photo: Arch of Constantine and Meta Sudans, by SuperKrzysztof  licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

God of the Fishes and Birds of the Marshes

Hapi was believed to live in a cavern at the supposed source of the Nile near Aswan. He was in charge of sending Nile waters through the land of the dead, the heavens and finally into Egypt, where waters emerged again between the Islands of Elephantine and Philae. Hapi was powerful, sometimes destructive, but also very beneficial: annual Nile floods deposited silt on the river’s banks, allowing the Egyptians to grow their crops each year. The cult of Hapi was situated at the First Cataract, on the island of Elephantine. To monitor Nile’ level and the transparency of its Nile waters, Priests maintained on the Elephantine island and elsewhere special devices called nilometers. Hopefully, we still have coins that show how both Hapi and Nilometers looked like.

Rare Coin with a Sleeping Hapi

The coin below is extremely rare – only a few coins like this one have been fund. Its reverse depicts Hapi and his main attributes. Hapi is seen here seated on a rock, and his right hand is raised above his head indicating that he is asleep. One can see to right a Nilometer with a scale and above the Nilometer there is a hawk – Horus.   

Nilometers on coins  

The depiction of nilometers on coins struck in Egypt during Roman time is not very common, but we still have a few coins showing them. The coin below was struck during the reign of Elagabalus and the Nilometer is shown here as an obelisk with two genii attendants. The figure on the obverse of the coin is reclining Nilus himself. This way to depict Nile became really standard for the time. There is a statue in Vatican – the personified river Nile is sculpted exactly as on the coin below.

What to see there now ?

One of the best places to assess the significance of Nile for Egyptians and to see two existing Nilometers is the Island of Elephantine. 

This relatively small island is located on the Nile near to the city of Aswan in southern Egypt. According to Egyptian mythology, the island – known to them as Abu – was the dwelling palace of Khnum, the ram-headed god of the cataracts who guarded and controlled the waters of the Nile. In antiquity, this island stood on the border between Egypt and Nubia, and its location served as a defensive site for a city and commercial center. The site is notable for the Elephantine papyri, caches of legal documents written in Aramaic that record a Jewish community that lived here in around the 5th century B.C.

There are a number of excellent ancient remains to be seen on Elephantine, including several temples. On the island, one is able to see the Temple of Satet, the personified goddess of the Nile inundation. The temple has existed since around 3200 B.C., but a new temple was built by Ptolemy VI in the first half of the second century B.C.; the Ptolemaic dynasty was careful to maintain the religious customs of Egypt, often associating native deities and customs with their own. To the south of the island, there is also the Temple of Khnum, the oldest ruins on the island.

Also, as mentioned, of interest are the 2 Nilometers at Elephantine. These structures served as devices for measuring the depth and clarity of the annual floods.

Author: TTR. 

Source of header pic – please see sources of coins mentioned in the article.

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Three lost honorific columns on coins 

The first of columns that ever appeared on coins is Columna Minucia – it was also the first honorific column of Rome. It was erected in 439 BC on Comitium. Its construction was financed through a popular subscription to commemorate L. Minucius Augurinus, who was consul in 497 and in 491 BC. During his service, he consecrated the temple of Saturn on the Forum and Saturnalia festival took place for the first time. Also, he managed to deal with famine that struck Rome in 490 BC. The theme of salutary grain shipments from Sicily can be seen on the republican denarius struck by C. Augurinus in 135 BC in honor of his famous ancestor.  

The second famous column of antiquity is Columna Rostrata Augusti. It was erected on the Forum in 36 BC by Octavian to commemorate its victory over Sextus Pompey, who was the last center of opposition to the Second Triumvirate. The victory over Sextus was hard to achieve and Octvian spared to no means to commemorate it. This column stood between the Forum’ Rostra and the spring on the Forum called Lacus Curtius.  It is likely that the entire column was built from melted beaks of enemy’s ships. Its was possibly gilded, as well as Octavian’s statue that was placed on top of it. 

The third column preserved on coins is the Columna Antonini Pii – the column of Antoninus Pius. It was built by emperors Marcus Aurelius and Licius Verus in the memory of Fausina and Antoninus Pius. This column stood on Campus Martius not far from the column of Marcus Aurelius (the latter is still standing today). The column was made of a monolithic slab of red granite and had a decorated base of white marble. The column survived until modern times, but it was damaged by fire in 18^th century. Its granite broken pieces were recycled for the restauration of the obelisk of Augustus that stands now on the Piazza Monte Citorio. Only the base of the column was preserved: it has a dedicatory inscription on one side and reliefs on three others. One of three relief of the basement depicts Faustina and Antonius carried by a genius on its wings. Two other reliefs show the Decursio Equitum – a procession that was held before the funeral pyre was lit. The depiction of the base, which was heavily restored, can be seen here.   

Columna Traiana: The most spectacular one 

Three ancient columns still stand today in Rome: the column of Trajan (called Columna Traiana), the Column of Marcus Aurelius (its whole name is “Columna Centenaria Divorum Marci et Faustinae”) and the column of Phocas. The latter is also called the Columna Focae – it was erected in 608 AD by Smaragdus, exarch of Italy. But the most spectacular of the three columns of Rome is certainly the Column of Trajan. 

The Column of Trajan was dedicated to Trajan war in Dacia. Between 101 – 102 and 105 – 107 AD, the Emperor Trajan waged a war in the territory that is now Romania and Transylvania, partly to contain the Dacian threat, partly to incorporate their natural resources, and partly to avenge an earlier humiliating defeat that Rome had suffered under Domitian. Rome inevitably triumphed. And doing what a Roman emperor did best, Trajan decided to monumentalise Rome’s victory by literally setting it in stone (or rather marble) on a 30 metre-tall victory column. 

As well as a commemorative monument gloating over a barbarian defeat, Trajan’s Column also doubled up as the emperor’s sepulchre. This was pretty controversial. Burial within the city limits was a rare privilege, and with him being the modest man that he was, we can assume that Trajan wouldn’t have presumed this privilege for himself—even if the Senate did vote him Optimus Princeps (or “best ruler”). But he hedged his bets by having a tomb built within his column’s base. And he guessed right, his ashes deposited sub column in a golden urn late in the sweltering summer of 117 AD.

First we advanced to Berzobim…

Trajan’s Column is most famous for portraying scenes from the emperor’s Dacian campaigns on its spiralling frieze. It shows a staggering 155 stages of the war (Trajan appearing in 58 of them) and would have stood between two libraries containing his dispatches from the frontline. Indeed, Trajan actually wrote a commentary about the war—probably in the style of Caesar’s Bellum Gallicum—in a work known as the Dacica. Only five words of it have survived, however—the deeply moving lines inde Berzobim, deinde Aizi processimus roughly translating as, “first we advanced to Berzobim, then we moved on to Aizi.” 

Curiously enough, few of the column’s scenes are violent. Depictions of battle feature far less than those of travel, sacrifice, adlocutio (divine summoning) and submissio (the enemy’s submission). So why, on a monument commemorating military victory, would its designers have decided to tone down the bloodshed? The answer probably lies with the fact that around the time of the column’s completion in 113 Trajan was already planning another campaign in Parthia. 

The Pathian campaign would prove far more costly than the campaigns in Dacia and reap far fewer rewards: undertaken principally to enhance Trajan’s prestige as a good old-fashioned military imperator. The decision to represent the Romans as being so militarily superior that their enemies would readily submit was therefore a propagandistic one intended to get the populace on board. Understandably, it was a far better alternative to depicting the harsh realities of attritional warfare which in reality they would have to fight. 

A story that was impossible to read? 

As impressive as the column is, scholars have long scratched their heads trying to work out how contemporaries would have been able to piece together its narrative without walking round and round in circles and severely cricking their necks. And that’s when its frieze was still polychrome! You could certainly once get an elevated view of the column from the Basilica Ulpia’s first-floor terrace. But given that this terrace didn’t spiral around the monument, it could quite literally only give you one side of the story. 

Ultimately we don’t know. It could simply be that the architect’s blind vision got in the way of the monument’s practicalities. What’s beyond doubt is the magnificence of the column itself: within the monument is a spiralling staircase, at the base of the column is a dedicatory inscription from the Senate and the People of Rome, and once standing atop the column was a bronze statue of the emperor. But it has long since been lost; stolen along with the earthly remains of the emperor which were looted in the Middle Ages.

Author: Alexander Meddings with additions and edits by TTR. 

Source of header pic – please see sources of coins mentioned in the article above.

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

Scene of most cruel battles 

As foreign riches flooded the city in the wake of the victories of dynasts like Marius, Pompey, and Caesar during the late Republic, the Circus Maximus became the site of some truly bizarre scenes. In 55 BC, Pompey provided the combative spectacle of twenty African elephants forced to fight to the death. The result of this battle, unsurprisingly, caused some serious damage to the stands. By channelling the Tiber, Caesar built a protective moat between the sand and the stands. He did this partly to outdo his rival and partly to make sure no fights in the arena can damage stands again. 

One of the Rome’ most beautiful buildings 

The circus was at its greatest under Augustus (31 BC – 14 AD). The first emperor added to its grounds an Egyptian obelisk (the Flaminio Obelisk which now stands in the Piazza del Popolo), expanded its seating capacity to 150,000, and rebuilt many of its sections in stone. His successors too made their own additions. Claudius in particular has built carceres (starting gates) out of marble. The Great Fire of 64 AD caused significant damage. But it wasn’t serious enough that Nero didn’t have the circus up and running for his return from Greece in 68 AD.  

Pliny the Elder (23 – 79 AD) counted the Circus Maximus among the most beautiful buildings in Rome. And Procopius tells that the last games to take place in the Circus Maximus were held in 550 AD. Unfortunately, the circus’s destruction began in the same century. However, the circus has never been destroyed to the extent that its former greatness hasn’t been instantly recognisable. 

Rome’s greatest shows on coins 

A few coins struck under several rules tell us the story of Circus Maximus renovations. They also provide a glimpse of how the most spectacular shows of antiquity looked like. The first coin below was struck under Trajan. In 103 AD he restored and expanded the grandstand of the Circus Maximus. Thanks to this renovation, an additional five thousand places were added.

The coin shows the Circus from the Palatine hill. One can see the spina and all major decorative elements of it: the obelisk of Augustus, the statue of Cybele on a lion, the dolphin lap counter, and two metae (turning points). The arch of Titus seen on the eastern side of the Circus should not be confused with another arch dedicated to this Emperor by his brother Domitian in 82 AD. This latter arch still stands on the Forum, while the former one has left virtually no traces, excepting its depiction on Circus Maximus coins. 

Rome mint. Struck under Trajan circa AD 103. Laureate head right, slight drapery / View of the Circus Maximus. The image in public domain. Annotations by TTR.

The next coin is interesting because it shows the evolution of Circus architectural elements. It was struck some hundred years later than the first one, under Caracalla. Trajan sestertius served as the prototype for it, but the coin of Caracalla also depicts starting boxes, called carceres. The coin that we have used as a header of this article was also struck under Caracalla and one can see departing gates on it too. 

The last coin is very scarce and it depicts on its reverse one of the great Circus Shows. In 204 AD Romans held Saecular Games (Ludi Saeculares) which included sacrifices, distribution of money to citizens, and Circus races and games. This coin is likely corresponding to this event. Fortunately, we also have a full description of the show provided by Dio Cassius (LXXVII, 4-5). Here is his description of the great show: 

“The whole construction in the amphitheatre was constructed in the form of a ship, and was so conceived that 400 beasts might be received into it, and at the same time be sent forth from it. Then, when it suddenly collapsed there issued out of it bears, lionesses, panthers, lions, ostriches, wild asses and bison, so that seven hundred beasts, both wild and domesticated, were seen running about at the same time and were slaughtered.” 

The coin is so well engraved that one can actually see animals described by the historian: there is an ostrich on the left, a leaping lion, and bison standing on the right side of the ship. 

What to see there now ?

The Circus Maximus is Rome’s best example of a perfectly preserved structure in which nothing of the actual structure has survived. More than being situated in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills, the Circus Maximus is the valley: its ancient shape stretching from the exit of the Circo Massimo metro stop right up to the Via dell’Ara Massima di Ercole near the Forum Boarium. 

Regrettably, little material has survived from one of the most important structures of the ancient city. The only traces of its foundations that have been found are located either towards the east end of the circus or running along its northern side near the Palatine. But you can easily make out its shape and size of this enormous racetrack: a total length of 600 metres and total width of 200 metres with a cavea (or seating area) that would have stood three storeys tall. 

Rather counter-intuitively, some of the Circus Maximus’s best remains are actually to be found on the slopes of the Palatine. Several inscriptions have been recovered from the area known as Cermalus Minisculus which seems to have been the home of shops, workshops, and other buildings associated with the running of the circus. Some of these have been preserved beneath the Basilica of Santa Anastasia, while others—dating from the late Republic to the late Empire— run between the basilica and the grounds of the circus. 

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

Authors: Alexander Meddings with additions and edits by TTR. 

Western side of Acropolis: Erechteion and Athena Promachus 

The coin below was struck in Athens under the Roman rule, possibly, in the second part of the 2^nd century AD or maybe earlier. The obverse shows Athena wearing Corinthian helmet. The reverse of the coin shows the view of the Athens Acropolis from north and west. 

The coin above is an average state of preservation. Thus, for illustration purposes, we will use the reproduction of a similar coin taken from an old monograph. One can see on the reverse of the coin two temples on the top of a rocky hill. The left temple is Erechteion, and the right one is not a temple, but the Propylaia. From the ground level the Panathenaic Way is leading upward to the Propylaia on the right side. The colossal statue of Athena Promachus stands between the Erechteion and Propylaia. Finally, on the slope of the hill, there is a niche representing the Cave of Pan.  

One theory says that this coin was struck in commemoration of renovations decided by Claudius. This roman emperor was a benefactor of Greece as he restored to Greece statues that Caligula had carried off. It is also possible that the coin was struck to commemorate the paving of the staircase leading to the Acropolis with white marble. Today, most numismatists think this coin was not truck under Claudius but later, in the middle of the 2^nd century AD. Another example of this rare coin can be found on the website of the Ashmolean Museum.

Southern side: Parthenon and Theater of Dionysos

The coin below is much rarer than the first one. Only a handful of them were found so far. One of such coins is part of British Museum’s Payne-Knight collection. Another one is kept in Harvard Museum.

This second coin was possibly struck in commemoration of the newly renovated Dionysos Theatre during Hadrian’s reign. Hadrian was the first emperor to visit Athens since Augustus and he was agonothete (superintendant) at the Dionysia in Athens in 125 and 132 AD. He was also a great benefactor of Athens and the Theatre of Dionysos was adorned with his statues. However, we can’t be sure about this date of mint or the association with Hadrian: so far only a dozen of coins with Parthenon reverse were found.    

For further reading about the coins we have described we suggest the following reading: “Athenian Imperial Coinage”, Hesperia Volume 5, Issue 3 (1936).  

Acropolis changes in Roman times

The two coins above highlight Acropolis appearance in the roman time. But in fact only very few changes were made to the Acropolis during the roman period. The most important addition was the circular temple of Rome and Augustus. It was built in 19 BC to commemorate the victory of Augustus over Parthia. A number of statues were also rededicated to Augustus and the Roman general Marcus Agrippa. 

On the southern slopes, several buildings were re-modelled following damage during Sulla’s attacks. Later, the Odeon of Herodes Atticus was built. On the north face, an additional sanctuary cave was founded which the archons used for offerings to Apollo when assuming office. 

Around the time of the Herulian invasion of AD 267, the Acropolis walls were strengthened, and a new staircase and the Beulé Gate were constructed at the entrance to the Propylaia to restrict access to the sacred precinct

What to see there now ? 

Visitors enter the Acropolis via the monumental Roman staircase. It leads to the Propylaia and the Temple of Athena Nike. The most prominent buildings are from the Classical Period and include the Parthenon and Erechtheion. 

The Roman-era temple to Rome and Augustus is no longer standing. Visitors tend to leave the Acropolis through the Beulé Gate. On the southern slopes, the Odeon of Herodes Atticus and Theatre of Dionysus are beautifully preserved.

To find out more: Timetravelrome.

Ancient story of Ephesus

Ephesus is located on the Aegean coast of Modern Turkey, southwest of Selçuk. Ephesus area was inhabited since the Neolithic period (ca. 6000 B.C.) and was once one of the most esteemed cities in the ancient world. The mythical founder was an Athenian Prince Androklos. He is also famous as the founder of the Ionian League.

In the Archaic period, the city came under the control of the Lydian King, Croesus. He is most famous in history for his huge wealth. During this time, Ephesus flourished. The city was home to esteemed figures such as Heraclitus the philosopher. He famously said that a man could never set foot in the same river twice, the world being in a constant state of flux. 

Hellenistic Kingdom conquered by Romans

Ephesus rebelled against Persian rule at the turn of the 5th century B.C. It was actually the trigger for the Ionian revolt and the Greco-Persian Wars. The city initially sided with Athens, but then later with Sparta. During the Hellenistic period, the city welcomed Alexander the Great’s triumphal entry, as he liberated the Greek cities of Asia Minor from Persian rule. After Alexander death, the city changed hands a few times between several rulers. The latest was Attalus III: after his death in 133 B.C., the Seleucid kingdom was bequeathed to the Roman Republic, and Ephesus became a Roman city. 

Roman authority, and with it increased taxation, was not appreciated by locals. As a result, the Pontic King, Mithridates, was welcomed here. It is from Ephesus that he ordered the so-called Asiatic Vespers; the slaughter of Roman citizens in Asia. The city was duly punished when it was reclaimed for Rome by Sulla in 86 B.C. 

Artemis Temple: one of the Seven Wonders of Antiquity

In antiquity, Ephesus was most famous for the Temple of Artemis (Artemision) that was located nearby. It is believed that the construction of the Temple was financed by Croesus. This is indicated by the discovery of his signature on the base of one of the columns. The Temple was so splendid, that it was considered as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.  According to Pausanias it was also the largest structure of antiquity – larger by a few meters on a side than a modern football field – and it was the first Temple to be entirely of marble.  

The Temple had taken some hundred twenty years to complete, but it was destroyed by fire in 356 BC, soon after completion. It was burned down by Herostratus, who immortalized his name in this infamous way. Ancient believed that the Temple could avoid the destruction, but its divine protector, Artemis, was absent from the shrine, assisting this very same day in the delivery of Alexander the Great… 

The Temple was rebuilt soon, and stood there for centuries, in spite periodical earthquakes. But, unfortunately, it was burned again by the Goths in AD 262. After this event, and even before its definite closure by Theodosius I in AD 391, the site started serving as a quarry for building the Byzantine city at Ephesus. The remaining parts of the great Artemision were slowly sinking in marshy soils, and covered by alluvial deposits. The Temple no longer survives, but we know how it appeared in the past thanks to descriptions by ancient writers and to its depictions on ancient coins.  

Artemis Temple : Ancient Coins tells the Story 

Pliny mentioned that the temple had 127 columns, each some 18 meters high. Vitruvius described the Temple as dipteral octastyle: two rows of columns around the temple with eight on the front and rear façades. Thirty-six of columns, according to Pliny, were decorated with reliefs. This description is confirmed by the bronze medallion minted under Hadrian, shown below. 

The next coin below was minted some 100 years earlier, under Claudius. It is in an exceptional state of conservation and reveals interesting details of the temple’s architecture. One can see on Temple’s pediment three square openings or windows. Archaeologists don’ know the exact use of these windows: the goddess may have been displayed through them or they may have served to relieve the pressure of the structure. The reconstruction of the Temple in the Ephesus museum shows how they might have looked like in the past

Artemis Festival and Symbols 

The third coin shows how the statue of Artemis looked like. The Goddess wears a head-gear, the modius (or polos), symbolizing powers over fecundity. Indeed, Temple’s goddess was worshipped for fertility: during Artemisia festivals celebrated in March – April, men and women used to choose their fiancés; Ephesus festivals drew in both locals and foreign visitors.  Below Goddess’ neck, one can see ‘breasts’ of Artemis. Nobody really knows what their meaning is. Some believe they depict eggs, breast, acorns, and, last but not least, testicles of bulls. Anyhow, the Ephesian Artemis was a very different version of the deity than Diana – the “usual” goddess of the hunt. She was worshipped in Ephesus for fertility, and this can be seen on ancient coins like this one:

The city flourished with the advent of the Pax Romana, prospering as a city of considerable commercial wealth. It was destroyed by Goths in 262 A.D., during the so-called Third Century Crisis. This moment marked the beginning of the city’s decline, despite Constantine investing in its restoration. It endured as a significant Byzantine city, but its deterioration was accelerated by an earthquake in 614 A.D., and the progressive silting up of the Küçükmenderes River.

Artemis Temple in later antiquity 

The city flourished with the advent of the Pax Romana, prospering as a city of considerable commercial wealth. It was destroyed by Goths in 262 A.D., during the so-called Third Century Crisis. This moment marked the beginning of the city’s decline, despite Constantine investing in its restoration. It endured as a significant Byzantine city, but its deterioration was accelerated by an earthquake in 614 A.D., and the progressive silting up of the Küçükmenderes River.

What to see there now 

Ephesus is a splendid archaeological site in its own right and is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Unfortunately, the famous Temple of Artemis is less spectacular to see. It was built on marshy soils and was heavily damaged by earthquakes in antiquity. Today the Temple of Artemis is identifiable only by a single, rather inconspicuous, column, and the fragments of the frieze that are housed in both London and Istanbul. Besides the temple itself, we also recommend to see in Ephesus the Library of Celsus, which is a spectacular site in its own right. Built in 125 A.D. in memory of Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, the library once held an estimated 12,000 scrolls and was a monument to the ex-governor who patronised the library’s construction and is buried beneath. There is also a theatre with a capacity of around 25,000, making it one of the largest in the ancient world. Ephesus also contains the ruins of many of the recognisable aspects of ancient urban life. Several major bath houses accompany a couple of agoras, and an Odeon, as well as the remnants of the Temples of the Sebastoi (dedicated to the Flavian imperial dynasty) and the Temple of Hadrian.

Archaeological remains from Ephesus are displayed variously, including at the Ephesus Museum in Vienna, the Ephesus Archaeological Museum in Selçuk, and in the British Museum. 

Written for Timetravelrome by Kieren Johns, with additions and edits by TTR. 

For primary accounts of Ephesus, see:

Strabo, Geography, 14.1.24

Pausanias, Description of Greece, 4.31.8